Potential development of Irish agricultural sustainability indicators for current and future policy evaluation needs

Resilience assessment of the nitrogen flow system in food production and consumption for sustainable development on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

A robust and resilient nitrogen (N) flow system can effectively ensure consistent food production and consumption activities while preserving environmental quality. In this study, we constructed an indicator system to evaluate N flow system resilience including food production and consumption, at the county scale on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) from 1998 to 2018. The subsystem coupling coordination degree (CCD) and the effect of N losses on N flow system resilience were subsequently explored. The results indicated that despite the overall N flow system resilience remaining low and exhibiting spatiotemporal disparities from 1998 to 2018, over 90 % of the counties experienced improvements. High resilience areas (>0.15) were mainly concentrated in some counties in Sichuan Province, where N losses were positively correlated with system resilience. The level of resilience depended on agricultural and livestock development, and the CCD of subsystems was also high (>0.5) in this region, with the most balanced environmental and socioeconomic development. The low system resilience areas were concentrated in the eastern part of the QTP, where human activities caused substantial disturbances. The fragmentation of the agro-pastoral system coupled with the low system resilience of the food production and driving pressure subsystems led to low CCD between subsystems. In contrast, the western regions, characterized by a stable food production system, high food self-sufficiency, and weak dependence on external systems, showed a higher degree of system resilience and resistance. Our findings provide a reference for N resource management and policy formulation for food production and consumption in the agricultural and pastoral areas of the QTP.

Fertigation to recover nitrate-polluted aquifer and improve a long time eutrophicated lake, Spain

Use of nitrogen and phosphorus in agriculture increases agricultural production but also generates important environmental problems around the world, such as high nitrate levels in aquifers and an increase in eutrophication of waters. A set of tools and models are used, ENVIRO-GRO and PATRICAL models, to analyse the effect of large irrigation system modernization, 13,700 ha, from traditional flood irrigation to modernized drip irrigation, in the aquifer nitrate levels and in the phosphorus inputs to a 50-years eutrophicated RAMSAR lake, Albufera lake. Based on data collected from end users, modernized irrigation system reduces the amount of nitrogen applied from 25 % to 45 % and phosphorus applied around 90-95 %, so phosphorus content on soil, phosphorus legacy, is reducing by time. Obtained results indicate that nitrogen leaching as nitrate is reduced by 70 % to 83 % and surface runoff during irrigation events disappear, hence phosphorus contributions to surface waters are eliminated. Nitrate polluted aquifer will be recovered in 5-6 years after complete implement of measures and phosphorus inputs to the lake are reduced around 20 % contributing to improve the status of the eutrophicated Albufera lake. Results show great agreement with the European Strategy to reduce the use of fertilizers and how the fertilizers technical management in fertigation can contribute to greater efficiency in it use and improvement of the environment.

The Sustainability and Development Strategy of a Cattle Feed Bank: A Case Study

One of the Indonesian government’s policies to achieve national beef self-sufficiency is the 1000 beef village program. The program was piloted in many cattle-farming centers involving the operation of a feed bank to supply animal feed to tackle the challenge of feed limitation during the dry season. This study evaluates the sustainability status of an ongoing feed bank program and its development strategy based on the current progress of a feed bank used to serve five groups of farmers. Ninety sustainability attributes were derived based on six dimensions. The attributes were compiled from the primary data collected using a questionnaire. Expert opinions from practitioners were also considered in evaluating the attributes. The feed bank’s sustainability status and development strategy were determined using the multi-dimensional scaling method with the rapid appraisal approach. It was found that the overall sustainability status of the feed bank was less sustainable, with an overall score of 49.55. The individual dimensions of (A) policy and government support, (B) raw material, (C) facilities and infrastructure, (D) feed bank management, (D) human resource management, (E) price, production, and (F) distribution systems posed sustainability scores of 48.48, 60.33, 48.57, 47.89, 48.76, and 44.64, respectively. Among the 90 predefined attributes, 21 were identified as highly sensitive through both the root mean square and expert opinion. Those attributes led to five main recommended development strategies: (1) strengthening the institution, (2) intensifying training, (3) increasing human resources (4) partnership developments, and (5) increasing the role of multi-stakeholders.

A New Framework to Assess Sustainability of Soil Improving Cropping Systems in Europe

Assessing agricultural sustainability is one of the most challenging tasks related to expertise and support methodologies because it entails multidisciplinary aspects and builds on cultural and value-based elements. Thus, agricultural sustainability should be considered a social concept, reliable enough to support decision makers and policy development in a broad context. The aim of this manuscript was to develop a methodology for the assessment of the sustainability of soil improving cropping systems (SICS) in Europe. For this purpose, a decision tree based on weights (%) was chosen because it allows more flexibility. The methodology was tested with data from the SoilCare Horizon 2020 study site in Germany for the assessment of the impact of the integration of cover crops into the crop rotation. The effect on the environmental indicators was slightly positive, but most assessed properties did not change over the short course of the experiment. Farmers reported that the increase in workload was outweighed by a reputation gain for using cover crops. The incorporation of cover crops reduced slightly the profitability, due to the costs for seeds and establishment of cover crops. The proposed assessment methodology provides a comprehensive summary to assess the agricultural sustainability of SICS.

Changes over Time Matter: A Cycle of Participatory Sustainability Assessment of Organic Coffee in Chiapas, Mexico

This paper discusses how to incorporate the changes within an agroecosystem into sustainability assessment. We measured the sustainability of 86 organic coffee producers located in 4 municipalities of Sierra Madre of Chiapas, Mexico. Based on the MESMIS framework, a set of indicators was selected. A sustainability index was constructed using the multi-criteria decision method known as the analytical hierarchy process in a broad participatory process with producers and cooperatives. Likewise, classification of producers was carried out through land use transitions in their lands between 1999 and 2019 using satellite imagery. A variance analysis between classes was performed to identify statistical differences. The results show that producers who expand their coffee plantations into forested areas have more sustainability levels than those producers who convert agricultural activities into coffee plantations and producers with both transitions in coffee expansion-conversion. The indicators of labor efficiency, benefit-to-cost ratio, price, remnant of primary vegetation, recovery of production from natural phenomena, family succession, and producer land area showed statistical differences between classes. These results are relevant because sustainability assessment is an action-oriented method. Therefore, the contribution of this study can help guide recommendations for specific groups of producers.

A management framework for phosphorus use on agricultural soils using sorption criteria and soil test P

The variation in sorption and desorption of phosphorus (P) among soil types is not captured in current agronomic advice for agri-environmentally sustainable use of P. Phosphorus use is typically based on soil test P (STP) and soils are assumed to have the same rate of response to added P, regardless of sorption properties. The development of P sorption categories, coupled with STP information could improve fertiliser decision making, by making it more site specific and soil type specific. A framework for P sorption specific advice is proposed here integrating soil P sorption dynamics with STP for agronomic and environmental management, at farm and catchment scale. Using a national population of agricultural soils, laboratory measurement of Langmuir sorption maximum (Smax₅₀, mg kg^-1) and binding energy (k₅₀, l mg^-1), were coupled with STP (Morgan P) to derive novel categories for P management advice, specifically addressing the build-up and draw-down phases of P in soils. In addition to measured values, Smax₅₀ and k₅₀ were predicted from MIR spectroscopy and pedotransfer functions and used to allocate soils into these new sorption categories. The allocation of soils into a P management category using predicted values indicated that pedotransfer functions offered greater reliability (90% allocation accuracy using an independent test set), however MIR spectroscopy is faster and less resource intensive (67% allocation accuracy using an independent test set). Phosphorus sorption dynamics should be interpreted alongside soil test P and P Index information so that water quality policy can consider the difference between high and very high STP soils based on sorption information. In the absence of laboratory data on P sorption, soils can be classified into P management classes using predicted values from spectroscopy (rapid and cheap) or pedotransfer functions (greater reliability). Further development of the MIR methodology is recommended along with field validation.

Review: Precision livestock farming, automats and new technologies: possible applications in extensive dairy sheep farming

Precision livestock farming (PLF) technologies are becoming increasingly common in modern agriculture. They are frequently integrated with other new technologies in order to improve human-livestock interactions, productivity and economical sustainability of modern farms. New systems are constantly being developed for concentrated farming operations as well as for extensive and pasture-based farming systems. The development of technologies for grazing animals is of particular interest for the Mediterranean extensive sheep farming sector. Dairy sheep farming is a typical production system of the area linked to its historical and cultural traditions. The area provides roughly 40% of the world sheep milk, having 27% of the milk-producing ewes. Developed countries of the area (France, Italy, Greece and Spain - FIGS) have highly specialized production systems improved through animal selection, feeding techniques and intensification of production. However, extensive systems are still practiced alongside intensive ones due to their lower input costs and better resilience to market fluctuations. In the current article, we evaluate possible PLF systems and their suitability to be incorporated in extensive dairy sheep farming as practiced in the FIGS countries. Available products include: electronic identification systems (now mandatory in the EU) such as ear tags, ruminal boluses and sub-cutaneous radio-frequency identification; on-animal sensors such as accelerometers, global positioning systems and social activity loggers; and stationary management systems such as walk-over-weights, automatic drafter (AD), virtual fencing and milking parlour-related technologies. The systems were considered according to their suitability for the management and business model common in dairy sheep farming. However, adoption of new technologies does not take place immediately in small and medium scale extensive farming. As sheep farmers usually belong to more conservative technology consumers, characterized by an average age of 60 and a very transparent community, the dynamics do not favour financial risk taking involved with new technologies. Financial barriers linked to production volumes and resource management of extensive farming are also a barrier for innovation. However, future prospectives could increase the importance of technology and promote its wider adoption. Trends such as global sheep milk economics, global warming, awareness to animal welfare, antibiotics resistance and European agricultural policies could influence the farming practices and stimulate wider adoption of PLF systems in the near future.

Driving Sustainability in Dairy Farming from a TBL Perspective: Insights from a Case Study in the West Region of Santa Catarina, Brazil

All companies in agribusiness supply chains need to be aware of the best use of available resources, which demands an integrated assessment of environmental, economic and social aspects, i.e., the Triple Bottom Line (TBL). Such analysis allows us to get a more balanced and complete understanding of the real performance of companies, supply chains and industries. Companies in the upstream of agribusinesses supply chains present some limitations, but can contribute significantly to the overall sustainability of the entire value chain. The objective of this research was to understand the role of the drivers of sustainability in dairy farming from a TBL perspective, such as assistance to producers and the value chain, and the use of better technology and management practices. A sample of 54 rural farms in the dairy supply chain of the western region of Santa Catarina, Brazil, was used to test four hypotheses about what can drive sustainability. Furthermore, first- and second-order structural equation models using SMART PLS software were used for the analysis of the data. The results obtained show that social sustainability is positively influenced by the use of good management practices, and the latter, as well as public policies, positively influence economic sustainability. Furthermore, it was found that improvements in production techniques positively influence environmental sustainability, and this is mostly influenced by the use of good management practices, and less so by policies directed at the supply chain. Finally, from the analysis of the second-order variable for sustainability, it was highlighted that the economic dimension prevails in the eyes of the farmers, as the main dimension of sustainability, and that environmental aspects are still neglected.

Establishing nationally representative benchmarks of farm-gate nitrogen and phosphorus balances and use efficiencies on Irish farms to encourage improvements

Agriculture faces considerable challenges of achieving more sustainable production that minimises nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses and meets international obligations for water quality and greenhouse gas emissions. This must involve reducing nutrient balance (NB) surpluses and increasing nutrient use efficiencies (NUEs), which could also improve farm profitability (a win-win). To set targets and motivate improvements in Ireland, nationally representative benchmarks were established for different farm categories (sector, soil group and production intensity). Annual farm-gate NBs (kg ha^-1) and NUEs (%) for N and P were calculated for 1446 nationally representative farms from 2008 to 2015 using import and export data collected by the Teagasc National Farm Survey (part of the EU Farm Accountancy Data Network). Benchmarks for each category were established using quantile regression analysis and percentile rankings to identify farms with the lowest NB surplus per production intensity and highest gross margins (€ ha^-1). Within all categories, large ranges in NBs and NUEs between benchmark farms and poorer performers show considerable room for nutrient management improvements. Results show that as agriculture intensifies, nutrient surpluses, use efficiencies and gross margins increase, but benchmark farms minimise surpluses to relatively low levels (i.e. are more sustainable). This is due to, per ha, lower fertiliser and feed imports, greater exports of agricultural products, and for dairy, sheep and suckler cattle, relatively high stocking rates. For the ambitious scenario of all non-benchmark farms reaching the optimal benchmark zone, moderate reductions in farm nutrient surpluses were found with great improvements in profitability, leading to a 31% and 9% decrease in N and P surplus nationally, predominantly from dairy and non-suckler cattle. The study also identifies excessive surpluses for each level of production intensity, which could be used by policy in setting upper limits to improve sustainability.

The Complex Pathway towards Farm-Level Sustainable Intensification: An Exploratory Network Analysis of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Perception

Farm-level sustainable intensification of agriculture (SIA) has become an important concept to ensuring food security while minimising negative externalities. However, progress towards its achievement is often constrained by the different perceptions and goals of various stakeholders that affect farm management decisions. This study examines farm-level SIA as a dynamic system with interactive components that are determined by the interests of the stakeholders involved. A systems thinking approach was used to identify and describe the pathways towards farm-level SIA across the three main pillars of sustainability. An explanatory network analysis of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs) that were collectively created by representative groups of farmers, farm advisors and policy makers was performed. The study shows that SIA is a complex dynamic system, affected by cognitive beliefs and particular knowledge within stakeholder groups. The study concludes that, although farm-level SIA is a complex process, common goals can be identified in collective decision making.

Sustainability Assessment of Smallholder Farmland Systems: Healthy Farmland System Assessment Framework

Agriculture sustainability assessment is conducive to promoting sustainable agriculture construction and sustainable development. Modern agriculture and modern small-peasant production have different requirements for agriculture sustainability. Related studies provided assessment frameworks for many parts of the world. However, existing frameworks have distinct limitations and are not applicable to modern small-peasant economy (MSE) areas, such as China. The purpose of this study is regarding China as an example to construct a healthy farmland system assessment framework (HFSAF), to assess smallholder farmland systems’ sustainability. HFSAF’s theoretical basis, indicator system, data preparation methods, multi-level aggregation rule and results description method are presented in this paper. HFSAF is a multi-level indicator system with adjustable parameters, covering environment, economy and society aspects, including three dimensions, nine visions, 15 themes and 40 basic indicators. Taking Da’an City, Jilin Province, China as the study area to implement HFSAF. The assessment results prove HFSAF can be used to assess agricultural sustainability in MSE areas with limited agro-resource supplies, to assist the sustainable decision-making and regional agriculture remold.

Evaluation of Policies on Inappropriate Treatment of Dead Hogs from the Perspective of Loss Aversion

Punishment policies on the inappropriate treatment of dead hogs play a key role in safeguarding public health and environmental protection. These policies aim to regulate the behavior of farmers and promote the development of sustainable agriculture. Farmers’ evaluation of a policy can be used to measure its effectiveness, and loss aversion is a factor that has been little studied. This study surveyed 404 hog farmers in China, and analyzed the factors that influenced their evaluation of the penalties for the inappropriate treatment of dead hogs during 2016 and 2017. We used three indicators for the evaluation of the penalties: the degree of necessity, implementation, and effectiveness. Special attention was paid to farmers’ aversion to financial penalties and police detention time, which was elicited using economic experiments. The results show that farmers are more likely to be averse to police detention time than financial penalties, and suggest that the level of each indicator needs to be increased. The results from an ordered Probit model show that there are both similarities and differences between the formation paths of the three indicators. An aversion to financial penalties will help to improve the degree of implementation. An aversion to police detention time will lead to a negative trend in the degree of effectiveness. An in-depth analysis of the factors that influence farmers’ evaluation of policies to punish inappropriate treatment of dead hogs may provide a basis for the design of government policies to improve environmental protection performance.