Inconsistencies of e-waste management in developing nations - Facts and plausible solutions

How can the recycling of power batteries for EVs be promoted in China? A multiparty cooperative game analysis

While electric vehicles (EVs) are developing at a high speed in China, the power battery market is facing a decommissioning peak. The problem is that the recycling situation of domestic power batteries is not ideal, partly due to neglect by consumers. By considering the recycling system, mode, and policy of China's EV power batteries, we construct a tripartite evolutionary game model of the government, consumers and EV manufacturers; analyse the stable strategy adjustment mechanisms of tripartite participation in this recycling cooperation game; and simulate the tripartite evolutionary game. The results show that when the initial willingness of the government, consumers and EV manufacturers to recycle power batteries is not strong, the government takes the lead, driving EV manufacturers and consumers to participate in power battery recycling. When the government, consumers and EV manufacturers have medium or high levels of initial willingness, the government evolves and chooses a nonregulation strategy. In addition, by simulating the impact of changes in consumer-related influencing factors on this tripartite evolutionary game, we find that subsidies for recycling power batteries are a key factor affecting consumers' strategy choices and that boosting recycling compensation for consumers can improve their enthusiasm to participate in such recycling. Therefore, to improve the recycling of power batteries for EVs, in terms of both efficiency and percentage of deployment, the Chinese government should strengthen public education on power battery recycling, further integrate informal recycling channels, and balance the distribution of profits among consumers for recycling compensation.

An investigation on the operational resilience of the Canadian electronic product stewardship program and the recycling business characteristics

Electronic waste recycling companies have proliferated in many countries due to valuable materials present in end-of-life electronic and electrical equipment. This article examined the business characteristics and management performance of Electronic Products Recycling Association (EPRA), a Canadian nationwide electronic product stewardship organization. The organization's annual performance reports, from 2012 to 2020, for nine Canadian provinces in which it currently operates were aggregated and analyzed. Temporal analysis using regression and Mann-Kendall tests were employed, and five characteristics of EPRA's business were analyzed, including e-waste products collected, number of drop-off locations, efforts to build public awareness, operating expenses, and growth of e-waste stewardship. Results show a decline in the amount of e-waste collected across the provinces, except in New Brunswick, which started its program in 2017. The Mann-Kendall test revealed declining temporal trends in most provinces. Although the collection/drop off sites and stewardship organizations increased astronomically over the study period in Canada, the amounts of e-waste collected decreased. We found that public awareness generally did not increase the amount of e-waste collected, and these campaigns only appeared to be effective in jurisdictions with good accessibility of e-waste recycling. Processing cost accounted for the majority of the e-waste management budget in Canada, and different factors affected the financial success of the stewards differently.

Influence of Canadian provincial stewardship model attributes on the cost effectiveness of e-waste management

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of e-waste collection and management trends across six Canadian provinces, focusing on e-waste collection rates, provincial stewardship model attributes, program strategies and budget allocations from 2013 to 2020. Temporal and regression analyses were conducted using data from Electronic Product Recycling Association reports. A group characterization based on geographical proximity is proposed, aiming to explore the potential outcomes of fostering collaboration among neighboring provinces. The analysis emphasizes the significant impact of stewardship model attributes on e-waste collection rates, with Quebec emerging as a standout case, showcasing a remarkable 61.5% surge in collection rates. Findings from group analysis reveal a positive correlation between per capita e-waste collection rate and the growth of businesses and collection sites in Western Canada (Group A - British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba). This highlights the potential benefits of a coordinated waste management approach, emphasizing the importance of shared resources and collaborative policies. Saskatchewan and Manitoba allocated only 6.6% and 7.0% of their respective budgets to e-waste transfer and storage. British Columbia's observed steady decrease of e-waste collection rate. In Group A, stewards handled 2.18-13.95 tonnes of e-waste during the study period. The cost per tonne of e-waste tended to be lower when more e-waste is managed per steward, suggesting the potential benefits of an integrated e-waste collection and management system.

An in-depth analysis and review of management strategies for E-waste in the south Asian region: A way forward towards waste to energy conversion and sustainability

The soaring rise of electronic and electrical waste (E-waste) leads to significant challenges to the South Asian region, urging for incorporating comprehensive assessment and management strategies. The research dives into the intricacies of E-waste and examines how regulatory barriers, public ignorance, and the limited lifespan of electronic devices all contribute to the significant production of E-waste. This study emphasizes the vital need for ongoing and appropriate management practices by bringing attention to the short lifespan of electronic devices and the resulting generation of E-waste. This work also addresses the increased risks that people who live close to informal recycling sites for electronic waste face, as well as the dangerous substances that are found in them and how they harm the environment and human health. Furthermore, in order to promote circular economies and increase productivity, the study assesses management practices in both developed and developing nations, placing special emphasis on component reuse and recycling. Along with addressing the grave consequences of the illicit E-waste trade on the environment, particularly in developing nations, this review attempts to enlighten stakeholders and policymakers about the vital need for coordinated efforts to address the issues related to E-waste in the South Asian region by offering insights into E-waste assessment and management techniques.

Target setting and performance analysis: Promoting e-waste collection in China under the collection target responsibility models

The increasing volume of electronic waste (e-waste) poses significant challenges for efficient collection in China. Despite many measures were taken over the past two decades, the e-waste collection rate was still not high. To this end, the Chinese government issued a new policy, the collection target responsibility (CTR) policy. Under the CTR policy, however, it is essential for participants to know how to share the responsibility of collection and how much reasonable targets are set to ensure the efficiency of the collection models. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the determination of optimal collection targets and the corresponding performance from the perspective of responsibility sharing to support the successful implementation of the CTR. Firstly, the study focuses on participants including the government, manufacturers, and recyclers, and develops three CTR models, independent collection model, government cost-sharing model, and enterprise collaboration model. Secondly, collection target equations for each model are established by employing dynamic differential game analysis, and corresponding collection performances are derived. Thirdly, through practical case simulations, the evolution of collection performance is dynamically analyzed to determine reasonable collection targets for the three models, as 23.8%, 32.3%, and 34.4%, respectively. The findings highlight the effectiveness of CTR in improving e-waste collection targets and performance, with the highest levels attained when the collection responsibilities are shared by government cost-sharing and enterprise collaboration. This study provides theoretical support for setting reasonable collection targets under CTR, and assists decision-makers in developing targeted CTR implementation measures.

Environmental Injustice and Electronic Waste in Ghana: Challenges and Recommendations

Electronic waste (e-waste) or discarded electronic devices that are unwanted, not working, or have reached their end of life pose significant threats to human and environmental health. This is a major concern in Africa, where the majority of e-waste is discarded. In the year 2021, an estimated 57.4 million metric tons of e-waste were generated worldwide. Globally, COVID-19 lockdowns have contributed to increased e-waste generation. Although Africa generates the least of this waste, the continent has been the dumping ground for e-waste from the developed world. The flow of hazardous waste from the prosperous 'Global North' to the impoverished 'Global South' is termed "toxic colonialism". Agbogbloshie, Ghana, an e-waste hub where about 39% of e-waste was treated, was listed among the top 10 most polluted places in the world. The discard of e-waste in Ghana presents an issue of environmental injustice, defined as the disproportionate exposure of communities of color and low-income communities to pollution, its associated health and environmental effects, and the unequal environmental protection provided through policies. Despite the economic benefits of e-waste, many civilians (low-income earners, settlers, children, and people with minimal education) are exposed to negative health effects due to poverty, lack of education, and weak regulations. We critically examine the existing literature to gather empirical information on e-waste and environmental injustice. Comprehensive policies and regulations are needed to manage e-waste locally and globally.

Critical factors for implementing collection target responsibility in e-waste collection in China: A DEMATEL-ISM analysis

The Collection Target Responsibility (CTR) is the direction for the proper management of e-waste reuse and recycling. Despite its potential, the CTR policy is still in its infancy in China and faces significant challenges to its effective implementation. There are a few studies that have systematically identified and analyzed the factors that influence the application of CTR to e-waste collection systems in China. This study proposes a comprehensive process that considers collection targets and behaviors to develop the critical factors (CFs) involved in e-waste collection under CTR by participants including government, manufacturers and recyclers. The Decision-making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory and Interpretative Structural Modeling (DEMATEL-ISM) method was applied to analyze these CFs. The findings show that the development of policy and regulation is the root factor influencing the implementation of CTR in China, both in terms of collection targets and behaviors. Incentives and regulation of government, collection channels, and benefits of manufacturers and recyclers are important CFs that participants consider when adopting CTR and should be prioritized. This study not only contributes to the literature on e-waste collection under CTR, but also provides valuable insights for decision-makers to improve the performance of e-waste collection practices.

Incorporating self-employed maintainers into WEEE formal recycling system: A system dynamic approach

The establishment and operation of a formal recycling system for waste electrical and electronic equipment is an important measure to reduce environmental hazards and improve the recycling of resources, but how to incorporate self-employed maintainers into the system has formed an important research gap. Based on the perspective of extended producer responsibility, we argue that self-employed maintainers are required to assume the corresponding environmental responsibility for the environmental externality caused by informal maintenance activities. Using qualitative structural analysis techniques of system dynamics approach with quantitative simulation analysis techniques, we construct an incentive model for self-employed maintainers' participation in formal recycling system, based on which we propose four incentive strategies. A simulation analysis is further conducted by using the case of waste mobile phones recycling in Qingdao to verify the effectiveness of our incentive model and strategies.

Challenges to implement and operationalize the WEEE reverse logistics system at the micro level

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) possesses unique characteristics such as its growing production and the potential for resource extraction due to its composition. The implementation and operationalization of a reverse logistics system (RLS) for WEEE is a challenge, particularly concerning the micro level. The implementation of such systems often prioritizes urban centers and their higher population densities, generally overlooking the micro level. The latter refers to ward- or village-level divisions, which can be regarded as the smallest administrative divisions of both urban and rural areas. Furthermore, it encompasses any area facing logistical challenges regarding RLS operationalization due to factors such as geographical isolation, budgetary constraints, imbalances, social isolation, environmental aspects, and even geopolitical conflicts. This study is aimed at addressing this literature gap by discussing the challenges to implement and operationalize a WEEE RLS at the micro level. A systematic literature review was employed as our methodology. We found 13 challenges for developed and developing countries without distinction between macro and micro levels. An additional approach highlighted the significance of monitoring and controlling WEEE RLS. The challenge The population and LRS entities' lack or insufficient training and awareness received the most citations in the conducted search. These challenges were organized by operational phase and discussed from the perspective of the micro level to comprehend multifactorial local challenges involving all stakeholders in the reverse logistics of WEEE in emerging nations. This can assist local administrators and constitutes the primary contribution of this study.

Current status and future challenges of chlorobenzenes pollution in soil and groundwater (CBsPSG) in the twenty-first century: a bibliometric analysis

The global industrial structure had undertaken significant changes since the twenty-first century, making a severe problem of chlorobenzene pollution in soil and groundwater (CBsPSG). CBsPSG receives increasing attention due to the high toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation of chlorobenzenes. To date, despite the gravity of this issue, no bibliometric analysis (BA) of CBsPSG does exist. This study fills up the gap by conducting a BA of 395 articles related to CBsPSG from the Web of Science Core Collection database using CiteSpace. Based on a comprehensive analysis of various aspects, including time-related, related disciplines, keywords, journal contribution, author productivity, and institute and country distribution, the status, development, and hotspots of research in the field were shown visually and statistically. Moreover, this study has also delved into the environmental behavior and remediation techniques of CBsPSG. In addition, four challenges (unequal research development, insufficient cooperation, deeply mechanism research, and developing new technologies) have been identified, and corresponding suggestions have been proposed for the future development of research in the field. Afterwards, the limitations of BA were discussed. This work provides a powerful insight into CBsPSG, enabling to quickly identify the hotspot and direction of future studies by relevant researchers.

A review of various strategies in e-waste management in line with circular economics

Waste management of electrical and electronic equipment has become a key challenge for electronics manufacturers due to globalization and the rapid expansion of information technology. As the volume of e-waste grows, legal departments lack the infrastructure, technology, and ability to collect and manage it environmentally soundly. Government laws, economic reasons, and social issues are important considerations in e-waste management. The circular economy concept is built on reusing and recycling goods and resources. A novel idea called the circular economy might prevent the negative consequences brought on by the exploitation and processing of natural resources while also having good effects such as lowering the demand for raw materials, cutting down on the use of fundamental resources, and creating jobs. To demonstrate the significance of policy implementation, the necessity for technology, and the need for societal awareness to build a sustainable and circular economy, the study intends to showcase international best practices in e-waste management. This study uses circular economy participatory implementation methods to provide a variety of possible approaches to assist decision-makers in e-waste management. The purpose of this article is to review the most accepted methods for e-waste management to emphasize the importance of implementing policies, technology requirements, and social awareness in creating a circular economy. To conclude, this paper highlights the necessity of a common legal framework, reform of the informal sector, the responsibility of different stakeholders, and entrepreneurial perspectives.

Towards a sustainable and green approach of electrical and electronic waste management in Rwanda: a critical review

Electric and electronic equipment (EEE) consumption has grown to worrisome proportions in developing countries (DC_S), resulting in massive amounts of electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) being produced. A diagnosis of e-waste proliferation is required for its sustainable management plan in Rwanda. This review is based on open-access papers with e-waste as a keyword, the present situation of EEE, and e-waste in Rwanda. The need for various information communication and technology (ICT) tools, such as end-user devices, cooling-system devices, network equipment, and telecommunication devices, is strongly encouraged by Rwandan national plans, which deem ICT as a vital enabler of knowledge-based economy and development. In 2014, EEE was 33,449 tonnes (t), which is expected to be 267,741 t in 2050, with a yearly increase rate of 5.95%. In this regard, out-of-date EEE is being dumped as e-waste in large quantities and at an increasing rate across Rwanda. E-waste is often disposed of in uncontrolled landfills together with other types of household waste. To address this rising threat, as well as to preserve the environment and human health, proper e-waste management involving e-waste sorting/separation from other waste streams, repairs, reuse, recycling, remanufacturing, and disposal has been proposed.

Do government intervention measures promote e-waste recycling in China?

To improve the low e-waste recycling rate, the Chinese government has introduced a series of intervention measures. However, the effectiveness of government intervention measures is controversial. This paper constructs a system dynamics model to study the impact of Chinese government intervention measures on e-waste recycling from a holistic perspective. Our results demonstrate that the current Chinese government intervention measures do not promote e-waste recycling. By studying the adjustment strategies of government intervention measures, it can be found that the most effective adjustment strategy is to increase government policy support while increasing the punishments for recyclers. If the government only adjusts a kind of intervention measures, it is better to increase punishments than to increase incentives. And increasing the punishment for recyclers is more effective than increasing the punishment for collectors. If the government chooses to increase incentives, then the government should only increase policy support. This is because increasing the subsidy support is ineffective.

Integration of electronic waste management: a review of current global generation, health impact, and technologies for value recovery and its pertinent management technique

The fast evolution of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has developed into a prime environmental perturb in recent days. Today, electrical and electronic products merely become a needed part of people life's and professional lives. The whole process of e-waste contains an organized collection system, appropriate dismantling, and its treatment of recycling. The unparalleled hastening of e-waste and unceremonious discarding lead to an adverse impact on a country's development. Currently, challenges in e-waste have a lack of practical aid, poor structure, and insufficient economic support. Several legislations have been imposed which aim to enhance the handling of e-waste. Operative management of e-waste is now essential for the protective atmosphere and human beings as well. This article provides the systemic flow of the e-waste definition, global information, and generation of e-waste and composition of e-waste which were discussed. The study categorized the hazardous effect of e-waste on human beings, and the content analysis of e-waste in recent LCA applications was highlighted. Further different metal extraction and recovery techniques from e-waste have been reviewed. A few sets of current practices and some recommendations on a global scale level were provided. Finally, based on analysis, some approaches to e-waste was accomplished, and equitable environmental management was taken into account to identify the future outlook areas.

The Supervision Mechanism of Residents' Waste Separation Behavior: Analysis Using a Tripartite Evolutionary Game Model

To promote residents' waste separation behavior, waste separation supervision has been a crucial need. This paper aims to explore the supervision mechanism of residents' waste separation behavior using a tripartite evolutionary game model. The evolutionary stability conditions of resident, property service enterprise, and the government were analyzed. The influences of the main parameters on the strategy of three stakeholders were explored through numerical simulation. The results show that the regulatory mechanism of waste separation will reach the optimal stable strategy when the following conditions are satisfied: (1) the penalty for nonclassification is higher than the difference between classification cost and the total benefit of classification; (2) the subsidy to property services enterprise is greater than the total cost of positive participation management. Residents' behaviors are mainly influenced by rewards and punishments. The behavioral strategies of property service companies are more sensitive to subsidies than penalties. In the early stage of mandatory waste separation, it is important to reduce the cost of residents' separation, develop the publics' environmental awareness, and increase the willingness of properties to participate in management. This paper presents a new perspective and theoretical guidelines for the local government and communities to supervise residents' waste separation behaviors in China and other developing countries and offers useful insights into waste separation management for other countries.

Extended producer responsibility in developing economies: Assessment of promoting factors through retail electronic firms for sustainable e-waste management

The adoption of the extended producers' responsibility (EPR) principle as a mitigation strategy for e-waste management has gained impetus over the past few years. However, e-waste management in developing economies through retail electronic firms' or producer responsibility organization is still inceptive. This study identified and analysed promoting factors of EPR principle adoption through retail electronic firms in the Ghanaian electronic industry. Through extant literature and stakeholders' perspectives, 15 factors were identified as strategic and operational promoting factors, which were evaluated by experts. Subsequently, the grey Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory technique was used to analyse the data obtained. The outcome of the study suggests that operational factors have more influence than strategic factors to determine the adoption of the EPR principle. In addition, most of the important operational factors tend to be enabled by both push and pull measures by supply chain stakeholders. In the short term, adopting an advanced deposit recycling refund scheme tends to be the most effective elementary operational factor, which can push retailers to adopt the EPR principle. The significant pull elementary factors that need short-term attention include the opening up and creation of new market opportunities for e-companies as well as resilient and effective resources management. The study findings suggest that Ghana's present policy framework is limited for the adoption of the EPR principle by retail electronic firms. The study contributes to identifying promoting factors for adoption of the EPR principle from the perspectives of both the external and internal stakeholders in the electronic industry with emphasis on push and pull strategy.

Transboundary movement of waste review: From binary towards a contextual framing

Multiple cases of toxic waste dumping from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries to non-OECD countries in the 1980s led to scholarly attention to transboundary waste movements. The Basel Convention was established to provide an international legal framework to tackle such problems in the early 1990s, focusing on hazardous waste. However, the transboundary movement of all waste, not just hazardous waste, remains a societal challenge globally, frequently surfacing as an ethical question on the one hand and a story of resource management/trade on the other. This phenomenon has been studied across disciplines resulting in diverse, scattered and often contested understandings. Despite previous and ongoing efforts, waste production, management and transboundary movements are increasing and are predicted to grow significantly with global social, environmental and economic implications. This literature review uses a research synthesis and problematisation approach to critically analyse the transboundary waste literature since 1985. The findings highlight research trends, the need for data reliability and policy coherence, and the sustainability implications of the phenomenon. One recurring theme in the literature is the reduction of the complex phenomenon involving multiple countries, policies, actors and waste streams into simple opposite narratives, which we called transboundary waste binaries. We have identified and then challenged assumptions behind transboundary waste binaries and discussed the implications of such assumptions on the broader discourse. We have concluded with future research recommendations to look past the transboundary waste binaries towards a nuanced and contextual understanding of transboundary waste flows.

Understanding the individuals' motivators and barriers of e-waste recycling: A mixed-method approach

The increasing amount of e-waste and poor participation of individuals in proper recycling or disposal has become a big concern for policymakers. Therefore, it is essential to understand the factors that may facilitate or inhibit individuals from adopting e-waste recycling. The present research examines the attitude and intentions of individuals by applying the theoretical lens of Behavioral Reasoning Theory (BRT). The study uses a mixed-method approach and has been conducted in two phases: Phase 1- qualitative study (one-to-one interview: 30 respondents) and Phase 2: quantitative study (survey-based questionnaire- 348 responses). The qualitative part employs thematic analysis, and the quantitative study has been analyzed using SEM. Through the qualitative research, the study has identified self-image perceived negative effect and salvage value as the 'reasons for', whereas inconvenience, lack of support system, and emotional attachment have been identified as the 'reasons against' e-waste recycling. The findings show that moral and social norms significantly impact individual reasoning ('reason for'/'reason against') and attitude toward e-waste recycling. The result has also confirmed the moderation effect on self-efficacy among reasoning, attitude, and intention. The findings offer interesting insights to the government and policymakers for increasing individuals' participation in e-waste recycling.

Measuring Profitable Efficiency, Technical Efficiency, Technological Innovation of Waste Management Companies Using Negative Super-SBM–Malmquist Model

In recent decades, waste generation has increased gradually because of the development of the quantity and size of businesses, together with the high growth rate of the population. However, in 2019, like other industries, the waste management industry was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in relation to aspects concentrated on strategy. Subsequently, appropriate waste management in all aspects of the community, specifically for waste management enterprises, was demanded. This research aims to assess the profitable efficiency, position, technical, and technological innovation and compare the global major waste management corporations by integrating the negative super-slacks-based measure model and the negative Malmquist model in data envelopment analysis. Various inputs and outputs are initially selected from nine waste management companies’ financial statements from 2017 to 2020, including negative values, to attain their performance. The empirical results indicated that waste management companies’ managers could make better investment or strategy decisions for superior performance. At the same time, collaborators from other sectors could find their potential partners in the waste management industry. In general, considering the efficiency, Veolia Environment (DMU3) and Heritage-Crystal Clean Company (DMU8) were the most efficient companies. Meanwhile, Covanta Holding (DMU2) and Republic Services Corporation (DMU5) required additional development to improve their performance. Besides, because of the disparity in technical and technological innovation, most decision-making units could not achieve consistent improvement in terms of technical, technological change, and total production.

Photocatalytic Materials Obtained from E-Waste Recycling: Review, Techniques, Critique, and Update

Waste-derived materials obtained from the recovery and recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) such as batteries and printed circuit boards have attracted enormous attention from academia and industry in recent years, especially due to their eco-friendly nature and the massive increment in e-waste due to technological development. Several investigations in the literature have covered the advances achieved so far. Meanwhile, photocatalytic applications are especially of interest since they maintain mutual benefits and can be used for H2 production from solar water splitting based on semiconductor processing as a proper environmentally friendly technique for solar energy conversion. In addition, they can be utilized to degrade a variety of organic and non-organic contaminations. Nonetheless, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there has not been any comprehensive review that has specifically been focused on e-waste-derived photocatalytic materials. In this regard, the present work is dedicated to thoroughly discussing the related mechanisms, strategies, and methods, as well as the various possible photocatalysts synthesized from e-wastes with some critiques in this field. This brief overview can introduce modern technologies and promising possibilities for e-waste valorization, photocatalytic processes, and new photocatalytic degradation methods of eco-friendly nature. This paper discusses various e-waste-obtained photocatalytic materials, synthesis procedures, and applications, as well as several types of e-waste, derived materials such as TiO2, ZnO, indium tin oxide, and a variety of sulfide- and ferrite-based photocatalytic materials.

Rapid meniscus-guided printing of stable semi-solid-state liquid metal microgranular-particle for soft electronics

Liquid metal is being regarded as a promising material for soft electronics owing to its distinct combination of high electrical conductivity comparable to that of metals and exceptional deformability derived from its liquid state. However, the applicability of liquid metal is still limited due to the difficulty in simultaneously achieving its mechanical stability and initial conductivity. Furthermore, reliable and rapid patterning of stable liquid metal directly on various soft substrates at high-resolution remains a formidable challenge. In this work, meniscus-guided printing of ink containing polyelectrolyte-attached liquid metal microgranular-particle in an aqueous solvent to generate semi-solid-state liquid metal is presented. Liquid metal microgranular-particle printed in the evaporative regime is mechanically stable, initially conductive, and patternable down to 50 μm on various substrates. Demonstrations of the ultrastretchable (~500% strain) electrical circuit, customized e-skin, and zero-waste ECG sensor validate the simplicity, versatility, and reliability of this manufacturing strategy, enabling broad utility in the development of advanced soft electronics.

In this article, meniscus-guided printing of polyelectrolyte-attached liquid metal particles to simultaneously achieve mechanical stability and initial electrical conductivity at high resolution is introduced.

Industrial Internet of things-based solar photo voltaic cell waste management in next generation industries

Nowadays, modern industries generate their energy by using renewable solar. The rapid increase in photovoltaic (PV) module installations provides a better energy conversion, but their life cycle is a major concern. This research paper focuses on the recycling process for solar PV modules using the Internet of Things in industries. The smart bin with the Internet of Things (IoT) utilizes a machine learning approach to collect solar waste. The proposed smart bin uses k-Nearest Neighbor's algorithm (k-NN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a network-based learning algorithm. These algorithms are useful in updating the level of the bin via alert messages. It also helps in identifying the type of waste material. The k-NN algorithm provides 83% accuracy in predicting the bin level in a real-time testing environment. The smart dust bin classifies the waste materials, and notifies its level to the collection center through the IoT platform when the level reaches a prescribed threshold, the signal corresponding to the level is passed to the common waste collection unit. IoT is connected to Cloud Server. It helps to predict the level of the smart bin. Delay is introduced in the order of 3-8 s while the alert message is sent to the common waste collection unit. The system monitors the smart bin levels and sends the notifications to alert and initiate the collection unit. Real-time mobile app monitors the bin's level and location. The cloud IoT analytics analyze the solar e-waste in a different locations in industries.The proposed system works better and provides accurate results by using machine learning approach.

Analysis of environmental sustainability of e-waste in developing countries - a case study from Pakistan

The electronic waste generation rate is increasing drastically at a rate of 3 to 5% per year in developing countries. The aim of this study is to analyze the environmental sustainability and economic benefits of such e-waste management in the developing economies like Pakistan. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method has been employed for streamlined impact analysis of the end-of-life processing of e-waste focusing mainly on laptop computers and liquid crystal display (LCD) desktop computers in Pakistan. The method of cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment (CEENE) has also been deployed for the relative assessment of resources' consumption of e-waste recycling versus landfilling scenario. The determined impact scores are 1.79E + 03 kg CO₂ eq., 7.19E-07 kg CFC-11 eq., 1.02E + 03 kg 1,4-DCB, 7.13E + 01 kg 1,4-DCB, and 3.41E-03 kg Cu eq. in climate change potential, stratospheric ozone depletion, ecotoxicity potential, human noncarcinogenic potential, and mineral resource depletion impact categories, respectively. The results of CEENE analysis reveal that approximately 80% of the impact on natural resources is reduced by the efficient recycling of e-waste. The comparative assessment of respective scores for current and target material weight recovery (MWR) indicators represented that by increasing the MWR indicator by 33.8% for laptop computers and by 27.2% for LCD computers, the country will achieve an annual economic benefit of US $191.56 million. This is greatly significant for a transitional shift towards e-waste revalorization while realizing the objectives of sustainable resource consumption. Innovative improvement measures ensuring economically feasible, energy-efficient, and environment friendly waste collection, treatment, and recycling practices present an invaluable opportunity for developing countries.

Environmental impacts of hazardous waste, and management strategies to reconcile circular economy and eco-sustainability

The rise in living standards and the continuous development in the global economy led to the depletion of resources and increased waste generation per capita. This waste might posture a significant threat to human health or the environmental matrices (water, air, soil) when inadequately treated, transported, stored, or managed/disposed of. Therefore, effective waste management in an economically viable and environmentally friendly way has become meaningful. Prominent technology is the need of the day for circular economy and sustainable development to reduce the speed of depletion in resources and produce an alternative means for the future demands in the different sectors of science and technology. In order to meet the potential requirements for energy production or producing secondary raw material, solid waste may be the prime source. The activities of living organisms convert waste products in one form or another in which electronic waste (e-waste) is a modern-day problem that is growing by leaps and bounds. The disposal protocols of the e-waste management need to be given proper attention to avoid its hazardous impacts. The e-waste is obtained from any equipment or devices that run by electricity or batteries like laptops, palmtops, computers, televisions, mobile phones, digital video discs (DVD), and many more. E-waste is one of the rapidly growing causes of world pollution today. Plenty of research is available in the scientific literature, which shows different approaches being set up and followed to manage and dispose of waste products. These strategies to manage waste products designed by the states all over the globe revolves around minimal production, authentic techniques for the management of waste produced, reuse and recycling, etc. The virtual survey of the available literature on waste management shows that it lacks specificity regarding the management of waste products parallel to ecological sustainability. The presented review covers the sources, potential environmental impacts, and highlights the importance of waste management strategies to provide the latest and updated knowledge. The review also put forward the countermeasures that need to be taken on national and International levels addressing the sensitive issue of waste management.

Efficient recovery of Cu and Ni from WPCB via alkali leaching approach

The large generation of electronic waste (e-waste) is posing a serious threat to society. It is important to develop sustainable technology for the effective management of e-waste and the recovery of valuable metals from it. The present study employed hydrometallurgical approach for Cu and Ni extraction from waste printed circuit boards (WPCB) of mobile phones. This study demonstrates the application of ammonia-ammonium sulfate leaching for the maximum recovery of Cu and Ni. Investigations revealed that the most favourable reaction parameters for efficient metal extraction are - ammonia concentration - 90 g/L, ammonium sulfate concentration - 180 g/L, H₂O₂ concentration - 0.4 M, time - 4 h, liquid to solid ratio - 20 mL/g, temperature - 80 °C and agitation speed - 700 rpm. Under these conditions, 100% Cu and 90% Ni were extracted. Furthermore, the kinetic study was performed using the shrinking core model which revealed that the internal diffusion is the rate-controlling step for Cu and Ni extraction. The activation energies for Cu and Ni extraction were found out to be 4.5 and 5.7 kJ/mol, respectively. Finally, Cu was recovered with 98.38% purity using electrowinning at a constant DC voltage of 2.0 V at Al cathode. The present study provides a solution for concurrent extraction of Cu and Ni from the raw WPCB of mobile phones and selective recovery of Cu from metal leached solution. The process has the potential to recover the resources from WPCB while minimising the pollution caused by mismanagement of WPCB.

An Optimization-Based System Dynamics Simulation for Sustainable Policy Design in WEEE Management Systems

The increase in the use of electrical and electronic devices worldwide has created a rapid growth of waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). The current paper presents an optimization-based simulation (OBS) approach that allows the design of sustainable WEEE management system policies. The proposed OBS approach integrates a system dynamics (SD) model and a mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) model to improve the representation and performance of the WEEE processes considering their operative and strategic interdependence. The SD component elicits the complexity of the WEEE generation process. Complementarily, the MINLP model periodically optimizes key variables of the WEEE management system. Computational results in a case study based on WEEE from Colombian mobile phones illustrates how an approach solely based on SD simulation is unable to capture the operative-strategic nature of the system and perform optimal parameter updates. By contrast, the OBS approach of this paper outperforms an exclusive SD analysis both in the economic and environmental performance of the system. It obtains 33% more profits and 65% more environmental benefits. Moreover, for this case study, the model suggests that the cornerstone of the WEEE management system for increasing its performance is the replacement rate.

Recent Advances on Thermally Conductive Adhesive in Electronic Packaging: A Review

The application of epoxy adhesive is widespread in electronic packaging. Epoxy adhesives can be integrated with various types of nanoparticles for enhancing thermal conductivity. The joints with thermally conductive adhesive (TCA) are preferred for research and advances in thermal management. Many studies have been conducted to increase the thermal conductivity of epoxy-based TCAs by conductive fillers. This paper reviews and summarizes recent advances of these available fillers in TCAs that contribute to electronic packaging. It also covers the challenges of using the filler as a nano-composite. Moreover, the review reveals a broad scope for future research, particularly on thermal management by nanoparticles and improving bonding strength in electronic packaging.

Managing plastic packaging waste in emerging economies: The case of EPR in India

India's large population, rapidly growing economy, and the consequent rising plastic waste, has necessitated the need for an efficient and effective plastic waste management (PWM) system for ensuring an environmentally cleaner and sustainable future. Consequently, PWM policy in India has recently undergone a substantial shift from being an informally organized, largely uncoordinated set of programs towards becoming a formal and integrated system based on the extended producer responsibility (EPR) approach. This paper explicates the evolution, development, implementation, and implications of the Indian EPR framework for PWM by developing an integrative mixed-method case study. Using a theory-based stakeholder evaluation model, the study critically analyzes the drivers and constraining factors from a multi-stakeholder perspective and provides prescriptive suggestions on EPR policy formulation and implementation. It highlights three themes i.e., (a) robust regulatory architecture; (b) operational mechanism; and (c) ecosystem catalysts, whose nature, dynamics, and practicality shall determine the future of the Indian EPR framework and those of comparable emerging economies.

Reuse assessment of WEEE: Systematic review of emerging themes and research directions

The reuse of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is deemed the best end-of-life option in terms of the environmental impact and socio-economic benefits. Taking this cue, this paper applies a systematic literature review to map the existing knowledge base to present the major and emerging themes of the reuse assessment of WEEE. In all, 12,216 articles published from 2005 to 2019 in the Web of Science, ProQuest, and Google Scholar are collected, from which 331 articles are shortlisted for review. The shortlisted articles are divided into two sub-periods 2005-2014 and 2015-2019 to draw out the development of the research themes and the contribution of the recent research articles to the literature on WEEE reuse assessment. Bibliographic coupling combined with keyword analysis is performed using SciMat and VOSViewer. The results inform that the major ongoing themes are Consumer behaviour towards use, disposal, collection, reuse, repair and recycling of WEEE; Assessing the potential of WEEE for reuse; Product recovery strategy and market analysis for WEEE remanufacturing; and Material flow analysis of WEEE in circular economy. The research themes of Informal WEEE management in developing countries; Impact of government subsidy on WEEE management; and Product service system and circular economy deserve further attention. In the articles reviewed, mobile phones and computers are extensively studied for WEEE reuse assessment followed by refrigerators and televisions. Assessing the environmental impact and legal aspects of WEEE reuse, cross-border movements and flow in secondary markets, policies and regulations on the purchase of reprocessed WEEE, and the reprocessing and revenue made by the informal sector in developing countries are possibilities for future research.

Electrochemical approaches for selective recovery of critical elements in hydrometallurgical processes of complex feedstocks

Critical minerals are essential for the ever-increasing urban and industrial activities in modern society. The shift to cost-efficient and ecofriendly urban mining can be an avenue to replace the traditional linear flow of virgin-mined materials. Electrochemical separation technologies provide a sustainable approach to metal recovery, through possible integration with renewable energy, the minimization of external chemical input, as well as reducing secondary pollution. In this review, recent advances in electrochemically mediated technologies for metal recovery are discussed, with a focus on rare earth elements and other key critical materials for the modern circular economy. Given the extreme heterogeneity of hydrometallurgically-derived media of complex feedstocks, we focus on the nature of molecular selectivity in various electrochemically assisted recovery techniques. Finally, we provide a perspective on the challenges and opportunities for process intensification in critical materials recycling, especially through combining electrochemical and hydrometallurgical separation steps.

Impacts of COVID-19 on energy demand and consumption: Challenges, lessons and emerging opportunities

COVID-19 has caused great challenges to the energy industry. Potential new practices and social forms being facilitated by the pandemics are having impacts on energy demand and consumption. Spatial and temporal heterogeneities of impacts appear gradually due to the dynamics of pandemics and mitigation measures. This paper overviews the impacts and challenges of COVID-19 pandemics on energy demand and consumption and highlights energy-related lessons and emerging opportunities. The discussion on energy-related issues is divided into four main sections: emergency situation and its impacts, environmental impacts and stabilising energy demand, recovering energy demand, and lessons and emerging opportunities. The changes in energy requirements are compared and analysed from multiple perspectives according to available data and information. In general, although the overall energy demand declines, the spatial and temporal variations are complicated. The energy intensity has presented apparent changes, the extra energy for COVID-19 fighting is non-negligible for stabilising energy demand, and the energy recovery in different regions presents significant differences. A crucial issue has been to allocate and find energy-related emerging opportunities for the post pandemics. This study could offer a direction in opening new avenues for increasing energy efficiency and promoting energy saving.

Willingness to participate in take-out packaging waste recycling: Relationship among effort level, advertising effect, subsidy and penalty

The resource and environmental problems caused by the accumulation of take-out packaging waste have attracted wide concern and the management has become a critical need. To this end, a tripartite game model of governments, consumers and take-out platforms was built to analyze the dynamic evolution process of behavioral choice and to explore the effects of advertising, government policies and effort level on the waste system. The results showed that (1) the effort level expended by government and take-out platforms had different mechanisms for the evolution path of the system. A positive correlation existed between governments' effort levels and evolution speed, while the correlation with the effort level in take-out platforms was negative. (2) The advertising effect positively promoted the evolution path of governments and take-out platforms. (3) The governments' subsidies and penalties for consumers and take-out platforms had a significant positive impact on the evolution path of the two. This study provides a new perspective for the research on take-out packaging waste recycling and the conclusions can provide a reference for governments to formulate effective take-out waste management policies.

Relationship between economic growth and mismanaged e-waste: Panel data evidence from 27 EU countries analyzed under the Kuznets curve hypothesis

The volumes of waste electrical and electronic equipment are rapidly increasing worldwide. While the relationship between e-waste generation and economic growth has previously been studied, mismanaged e-waste has received little attention. This study examines the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis between economic growth and mismanagement e-waste for 27 European countries over the period 2008-2016. Previous studies on ECK employed waste generation as a proxy for environmental degradation, while this work uses mismanaged e-waste, namely uncollected and non-recycled/non-reused e-waste. Two different econometric methods (dynamic and static) are applied; the first method uses Fully Modified Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS) and Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS) as panel integration estimation, while the second method employs traditional Pooled Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and Robust Least Squares (MM-estimation). The advantages of the first method are its ability to avoid the problems of endogeneity and serial correlation, while the second method is applied to check the robustness of the results and to disclose whether the data set suffers from outliers. All estimators used consistently identified the inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth and mismanaged e-waste, as postulated by the EKC hypothesis: quantities of mismanaged e-waste increase along economic growth up to a certain economic development stage (turning point), but then mismanaged e-waste quantities decline while economy continues to grow. A unidirectional causality relationship running from economic growth to uncollected and non-recycled/non-reused e-waste was found. Furthermore, the results reveal that mismanaged e-waste increases with higher credit to private sector.

Environmentally friendly approach for the recovery of metallic fraction from waste printed circuit boards using pyrolysis and ultrasonication

Electronic waste (e-waste) with an annual growth rate of 3-5% is one of the fastest-growing waste streams. The unregulated accumulation and improper recycling can cause grave hazards to human beings and the environment. On the contrary, e-waste can be considered as a secondary source of metals and energy due to its high metal content and polymeric material. Thus, the present study demonstrates technology for the metallic fraction recovery and the production of valuable gases from e-waste. The process involves pyrolysis at a temperature range of 200 °C-600 °C in a fixed bed setup for 10-60 min. Under optimized operating conditions, 35 wt% combustible gases and 60 wt% solid product were obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 400 °C in 20 min. The gaseous product consisted of CH₄, H₂, CO and CO₂, having the heating value 28 MJ/kg whereas, the solid product is a mixture of metals and other solid residue material. Treatment of the solid product using an ultrasonication process resulted in around 90 wt% recovery of metallic fraction, thereby leaving behind solid residue. Moreover, the transfer of precious metals (Au, Ag, Pd and Pt) was nearly 100% to the metallic fraction. This process combines mild temperature pyrolysis and ultrasonication process to provide a solution for efficient management of e-waste, metallic fraction recovery and valuable gases production.

A cost-benefit analysis of the downstream impacts of e-waste recycling in Pakistan

This paper presents downstream cost-benefit analysis for electronic waste (e-waste) recycling workers in Pakistan, a country that both generates large quantities of e-waste domestically and imports a significant amount from developed countries. Financial cost-benefit elements - reduction in productive capacity, lost wages, medical expenses, wages (and meals) and non-financial cost-benefit elements - opportunity cost, cost of illiteracy and value of life have been quantified. Primary data collected on site was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. The estimated total net economic cost to recycling workers is between Rs.34,069 and Rs.85,478 (US$ 203-510¹) per month or an average of Rs.50,363 (US$ 300) per worker. This main finding suggests that cost exceeds by 2.6-4.7 times the estimated economic benefits derived by these workers. Related qualitative data suggests government and owners of recycling businesses are largely blind to many of the less visible costs of this industry, while recycling workers and their families appear trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty. Understanding that what can be measured can be managed and improved, a systematic assessment of informal recycling based on identified impact factors may help mitigate and ideally also motivate a shift towards formal processing that would reduce the downstream negative impacts, both visible and hidden.

Ecotoxicity of Plastics from Informal Waste Electric and Electronic Treatment and Recycling

Plastic materials account for about 20% of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). The recycling of this plastic fraction is a complex issue, heavily conditioned by the content of harmful additives, such as brominated flame retardants. Thus, the management and reprocessing of WEEE plastics pose environmental and human health concerns, mainly in developing countries, where informal recycling and disposal are practiced. The objective of this study was twofold. Firstly, it aimed to investigate some of the available options described in the literature for the re-use of WEEE plastic scraps in construction materials, a promising recycling route in the developing countries. Moreover, it presents an evaluation of the impact of these available end-of-life scenarios on the environment by means of the life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. In order to consider worker health and human and ecological risks, the LCA analysis focuses on ecotoxicity more than on climate change. The LCA evaluation confirmed that the plastic re-use in the construction sector has a lower toxicity impact on the environment and human health than common landfilling and incineration practices. It also shows that the unregulated handling and dismantling activities, as well as the re-use practices, contribute significantly to the impact of WEEE plastic treatments.

Estimation of E-waste Generation, Residential Behavior, and Disposal Practices from Major Governorates in Jordan

Estimating the generation of e-waste in governorates is critically needed for sustainable and environmentally sound e-waste management in Jordan. The main objectives of the present study are to quantify and evaluate the annual e-waste generation in all governorates in Jordan and disposal practices. The present study comprises the information of e-waste as classified by the European Union Directive including six main categories (16 United Nations University key items). The survey targeted 15,883 households (12.52% females and 87.48% males), where primary data on e-waste generation and disposal methods were gathered, assessed, and quantified. Subsequently, the survey-based data collected from the study sample have been extrapolated to quantify an e-waste generation inventory for Jordan and the disposal methods using ArcGIS mapping. The study-extrapolated findings reveal that ~8,735,187 e-waste items (13 ktons) had been turned into e-waste and discarded by all households in 2018 in the 12 governorates in Jordan. Moreover, dumping of e-waste is still the dominant disposal method practiced by 58.4% of households in Jordan. The other disposal practices showed that granting of the waste EEE to others has the share of 16.6%; selling (10.7%); delivering the waste EEE for environmentally sound recycling (6.8%); and others practices represented 7.4%. Furthermore, the present study has played a vital role in e-waste awareness dissemination since the findings of the present study have been modeled and shown online by the Department of Statistics, Jordan through the link ( https://arcg.is/1KzvjO ). Finally, the challenges, barriers, and prospects of e-waste management in Jordan have been explored in the present study.

Waste Management and Prediction of Air Pollutants Using IoT and Machine Learning Approach

Increasing waste generation has become a significant issue over the globe due to the rapid increase in urbanization and industrialization. In the literature, many issues that have a direct impact on the increase of waste and the improper disposal of waste have been investigated. Most of the existing work in the literature has focused on providing a cost-efficient solution for the monitoring of garbage collection system using the Internet of Things (IoT). Though an IoT-based solution provides the real-time monitoring of a garbage collection system, it is limited to control the spreading of overspill and bad odor blowout gasses. The poor and inadequate disposal of waste produces toxic gases, and radiation in the environment has adverse effects on human health, the greenhouse system, and global warming. While considering the importance of air pollutants, it is imperative to monitor and forecast the concentration of air pollutants in addition to the management of the waste. In this paper, we present and IoT-based smart bin using a machine and deep learning model to manage the disposal of garbage and to forecast the air pollutant present in the surrounding bin environment. The smart bin is connected to an IoT-based server, the Google Cloud Server (GCP), which performs the computation necessary for predicting the status of the bin and for forecasting air quality based on real-time data. We experimented with a traditional model (k-nearest neighbors algorithm (k-NN) and logistic reg) and a non-traditional (long short term memory (LSTM) network-based deep learning) algorithm for the creation of alert messages regarding bin status and forecasting the amount of air pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) present in the air at a specific instance. The recalls of logistic regression and k-NN algorithm is 79% and 83%, respectively, in a real-time testing environment for predicting the status of the bin. The accuracy of modified LSTM and simple LSTM models is 90% and 88%, respectively, to predict the future concentration of gases present in the air. The system resulted in a delay of 4 s in the creation and transmission of the alert message to a sanitary worker. The system provided the real-time monitoring of garbage levels along with notifications from the alert mechanism. The proposed works provide improved accuracy by utilizing machine learning as compared to existing solutions based on simple approaches.