A review on TiO2/SnO2 heterostructures as a photocatalyst for the degradation of dyes and organic pollutants

TiO2-based photocatalysts from type-II to S-scheme heterojunction and their applications

Photocatalysis is a promising sustainable technology to remove organic pollution and convert solar energy into chemical energy. Titanium dioxide has drawn extensive attention in this field owing to its high activity under UV light, good chemical stability, large availability, low price and low toxicity. However, the poor quantum efficiency derived from fast electron/hole recombination, the limited utilization of sunlight, and a weak reducing ability still hinder its practical application. Among the modification strategies of TiO2 to enhance its performance, the construction of heterojunctions with other semiconductors is a powerful and versatile way to maximise the separation of photogenerated charge carriers and steer their transport toward enhanced efficiency and selectivity. Here, the research progress and current status of TiO2 modification are reviewed, focusing on heterojunctions. A rapid evolution of the understanding of the different charge transfer mechanisms is witnessed from traditional type II to the recently conceptualised S-scheme. Particular attention is paid to different synthetic approaches and interface engineering methods designed to improve and control the interfacial charge transfer, and several cases of TiO2 heterostructures with metal oxides, metal sulfides and carbon nitride are discussed. The application hotspots of TiO2-based photocatalysts are summarized, including hydrogen generation by water splitting, solar fuel production by CO2 conversion, and the degradation of organic water pollutants. Hints about less studied and emerging processes are also provided. Finally, the main issues and challenges related to the sustainability and scalability of photocatalytic technologies in view of their commercialization are highlighted, outlining future directions of development.

Synthesis and investigation of optical properties and enhancement photocatalytic activity of TiO2-SnO2 semiconductor for degradation of organic compounds

Industrial wastewater treatment using UV irradiation in combination with oxidants or catalysts (TiO2) has attracted attention as a promising substitute for conventional methods. Studying the preparation and characterization of TiO2-SnO2 nanocomposites with different ratios, as well as their use in the enhanced photocatalytic degradation of acid red 37 dye in aqueous solution under UV irradiation as a model pollutant, are the goals of the research. The crystalline structures of the prepared nanomaterials were confirmed by XRD and the surface morphology of the samples was studied by TEM. The elemental compositions of the catalysts were confirmed by EDAX. The optical properties of the powder samples were analyzed with UV-Vis spectroscopy and their band gaps were estimated. The photocatalytic degradation was investigated using several advanced oxidation techniques using a batch photoreactor. The TiO2-SnO2 (90:10) nanocomposite showed the best degradation efficiency.

Compositional Optimization of Sputtered SnO2/ZnO Films for High Coloration Efficiency

We performed an electrochromic investigation to optimize the composition of reactive magnetron-sputtered mixed layers of zinc oxide and tin oxide (ZnO-SnO2). Deposition experiments were conducted as a combinatorial material synthesis approach. The binary system for the samples of SnO2-ZnO represented the full composition range. The coloration efficiency (CE) was determined for the mixed oxide films with the simultaneous measurement of layer transmittance, in a conventional three-electrode configuration, and an electric current was applied by using organic propylene carbonate electrolyte cells. The optical parameters and composition were measured and mapped by using spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) measurements were carried out to check the SE results, for (TiO2-SnO2). Pure metal targets were placed separately from each other, and the indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-covered glass samples and Si-probes on a glass holder were moved under the two separated targets (Zn and Sn) in a reactive argon-oxygen (Ar-O2) gas mixture. This combinatorial process ensured that all the compositions (from 0 to 100%) were achieved in the same sputtering chamber after one sputtering preparation cycle. The CE data evaluated from the electro-optical measurements plotted against the composition displayed a characteristic maximum at around 29% ZnO. The accuracy of our combinatorial approach was 5%.

Cellulose acetate membranes loaded with WO3/g-C3N4: a synergistic approach for effective photocatalysis

The objective of this study is to develop an efficient, easily recoverable membrane-based photocatalyst for removing organic pollutants from aqueous solutions. This study documents the effective synthesis of a novel composite photocatalyst comprising WO3/g-C3N4(WCN) loaded onto cellulose acetate (CA). The physicochemical properties of the synthesized nanocomposites were validated using a range of techniques, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. SEM analysis revealed that the WCN particles exhibited a well-decorated arrangement on the CA surface in the form of spherical particles. The successfully synthesized film was utilized as a potential adsorbent for removing organic pollutants such as Rhodamine B (Rh-B) and Methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solutions under UV light illumination. The results showcased the significant potential of the WCN@CA nanocomposite, achieving a remarkable 83% and 85% efficiency in eliminating Rh-B and MB. The pseudo-first-order kinetic models were found to be appropriate for both dye adsorption onto the WCN@CA nanocomposite. The WCN@CA catalyst, capable of being reused five times without significant loss of efficiency, shows great potential for decomposing toxic organic pollutants. The novelty of this work lies in the innovative combination of WCN with CA, resulting in a highly efficient and reusable photocatalyst for environmental remediation.

Efficient removal of methyl orange and ciprofloxacin by reusable Eu-TiO2/PVDF membranes with adsorption and photocatalysis methods

The presence of methyl orange (MO) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) in wastewater poses a serious threat to the environment and human health. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) are widely studied as photocatalysts for wastewater treatment. However, TiO2 NPs have the drawbacks of high energy required for activation, fast electron-hole pair recombination and difficulty in recovering from water. To overcome these problems, europium decorated titanium dioxide/poly(vinylidene fluoride) (Eu-TiO2/PVDF) membranes were successful prepared in this work by combining the modified sol-gel method and the immersion phase inversion method. The Eu-TiO2/PVDF membranes obtained with the increase of Eu-TiO2 NPs content during the preparation process were named M1, M2 and M3, respectively. The pure PVDF membrane without the addition of Eu-TiO2 NPs was named M0, which was prepared by the immersion phase inversion method and served as a reference. The prepared Eu-TiO2/PVDF membranes could not only adsorb MO, but also degrade CIP under visible-light irradiation. Moreover, the Eu-TiO2/PVDF membranes exhibited adsorption-photocatalytic activity towards a mixture of MO and CIP under visible-light irradiation. Last but not the least, the Eu-TiO2/PVDF membranes exhibited excellent recyclability and reusability, opening the avenue for a possible use of these membranes in sewage-treatment plants.

E-beam synthesized fast-switching TiO2/SnO2 type-II heterostructure photodetector

A fast-switching T i O 2/S n O 2 heterostructure thin-film (TF) photodetector synthesized by electron beam evaporation technique is analyzed in this study. The substrate utilized is n-type silicon (Si), while gold (Au) is employed as the top electrode. To assess sample morphology and confirm elemental composition, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and chemical mapping were conducted. Structural characteristics were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The XRD analysis confirmed the presence of various phases of T i O 2 (anatase and rutile) and S n O 2 (rutile). UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed multiple absorption peaks, at 447 nm, 495 nm, 560 nm, and 673 nm, within the visible spectrum. The device demonstrates high detectivity (D ∗) of 1.737×109 Jones and a low noise equivalent power (NEP) of 0.765×10-10 W. Evaluation of the device's switching response through current-time characteristic (I-T) analysis indicates rapid switching with a rise time and fall time of 0.33 s and 0.36 s, respectively.

Reversible Multi-Mode Optical Modification in Inverse-Opal-Structured WO3: Yb3+, Er3+ Photonic Crystal

Reversible optical regulation has potential applications in optical anti-counterfeiting, storage, and catalysis. Compared to common power materials, the reverse opal structure has a larger specific surface area and an increased contact area for optical regulation, which is expected to achieve higher regulation rates. However, it is difficult to achieve reversible and repeatable regulation of the luminescent properties of photonic crystals, especially with the current research on the structural collapse of photonic crystals. In this work, WO3: Yb3+, Er3+ inverse photonic crystals were prepared by the template approach, and reversible multi-mode optical modification was investigated. Upon heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere or air, the color of the photonic crystals can reversibly change from light yellow to dark green, accompanied by changes in absorption and upconversion of luminescence intensity. The stability and fatigue resistance of this reversible optical modification ability were explored through cyclic experiments, providing potential practical applications for photocatalysis, optical information storage, and electrochromism.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of SnO2@ZnIn2S4 Composites for Highly Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

This research successfully synthesized SnO2@ZnIn2S4 composites for photocatalytic tap water splitting using a rapid two-step microwave-assisted synthesis method. This study investigated the impact of incorporating a fixed quantity of SnO2 nanoparticles and combining them with various materials to form composites, aiming to enhance photocatalytic hydrogen production. Additionally, different weights of SnO2 nanoparticles were added to the ZnIn2S4 reaction precursor to prepare SnO2@ZnIn2S4 composites for photocatalytic hydrogen production. Notably, the photocatalytic efficiency of SnO2@ZnIn2S4 composites is substantially higher than that of pure SnO2 nanoparticles and ZnIn2S4 nanosheets: 17.9-fold and 6.3-fold, respectively. The enhancement is credited to the successful use of visible light and the facilitation of electron transfer across the heterojunction, leading to the efficient dissociation of electron-hole pairs. Additionally, evaluations of recyclability demonstrated the remarkable longevity of SnO2@ZnIn2S4 composites, maintaining high levels of photocatalytic hydrogen production over eight cycles without significant efficiency loss, indicating their impressive durability. This investigation presents a promising strategy for crafting and producing environmentally sustainable SnO2@ZnIn2S4 composites with prospective implementations in photocatalytic hydrogen generation.

Highly visible-light-active sulfur and carbon co-doped TiO2 (SC-TiO2) heterogeneous photocatalysts prepared by underwater discharge plasma

To promptly and simply create highly crystalline S/C co-doped TiO2 (SC-TiO2) photocatalysts at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, we suggest a novel plasma-assisted sol-gel synthesis method. This method is a simultaneous synthetic process, in which an underwater plasma undergoes continuous reactions to generate high-energy atomic and molecular species that enable TiO2 to achieve crystallinity, a large surface area, and a heterogeneous structure within a few minutes. In particular, it was demonstrated that the heterogeneously structured TiO2 was formed by doping that sulfur and carbon replace O or Ti atoms in the TiO2 lattice depending on the composition of the synthesis solution during underwater plasma treatment. The resultant SC-TiO2 photocatalysts had narrowed bandgap energies and extended optical absorption scope into the visible range by inducing the intermediate states within bandgap due to generation of oxygen vacancies on the surface of TiO2 through synthesis, crystallization, and doping. Correspondingly, SC-TiO2 showed a significant degradation efficiency ([k] = 6.91 h-1) of tetracycline (TC, antibiotics) under solar light irradiation, up to approximately 4 times higher compared to commercial TiO2 ([k] = 1.68 h-1), resulting in great water purification. Therefore, we anticipate that this underwater discharge plasma system will prove to be an advantageous technique for producing heterostructural TiO2 photocatalysts with superior photocatalytic efficiency for environmental applications.

Recent progress in TiO2-biochar-based photocatalysts for water contaminants treatment: strategies to improve photocatalytic performance

Toxic organic pollutants in wastewater have seriously damaged human health and ecosystems. Photocatalytic degradation is a potential and efficient tactic for wastewater treatment. Among the entire carbon family, biochar has been developed for the adsorption of pollutants due to its large specific surface area, porous skeleton structure, and abundant surface functional groups. Hence, combining adsorption and photocatalytic decomposition, TiO2-biochar photocatalysts have received considerable attention and have been extensively studied. Owing to biochar's adsorption, more active sites and strong interactions between contaminants and photocatalysts can be achieved. The synergistic effect of biochar and TiO2 nanomaterials substantially improves the photocatalytic capacity for pollutant degradation. TiO2-biochar composites have numerous attractive properties and advantages, culminating in infinite applications. This review discusses the characteristics and preparation techniques of biochar, presents in situ and ex situ synthesis approaches of TiO2-biochar nanocomposites, explains the benefits of TiO2-biochar-based compounds for photocatalytic degradation, and emphasizes the strategies for enhancing the photocatalytic efficiency of TiO2-biochar-based photocatalysts. Finally, the main difficulties and future advancements of TiO2-biochar-based photocatalysis are highlighted. The review gives an exhaustive overview of recent progress in TiO2-biochar-based photocatalysts for organic contaminants removal and is expected to encourage the development of robust TiO2-biochar-based photocatalysts for sewage remediation and other environmentally friendly uses.

Facile aqueous synthesis and comparative evaluation of TiO2-semiconductor and TiO2-metal nanohybrid photocatalysts in antibiotics degradation under visible light

Advanced oxidation processes using TiO2-based nanomaterials are sustainable technologies that hold great promise for the degradation of many types of pollutants including pharmaceutical residues. A wide variety of heterostructures coupling TiO2 with visible-light active nanomaterials have been explored to shift its photocatalytic properties to harness sun irradiation but a systematic comparison between them is lacking in the current literature. Furthermore, the high number of proposed nanostructures with different size, morphology, and surface area, and the often complex synthesis processes hamper the transition of these materials into commercial and effective solutions for environmental remediation. Herein, we have designed a facile and cost-effective method to synthesize two heterostructured photocatalysts representative of two main families of novel structures proposed, hybrids of TiO2 with metal (Au) and semiconductor (CeO2) nanomaterials. The photocatalysts have been extensively characterized to ensure a good comparability in terms of co-catalyst doping characteristics, morphology and surface area. The photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole as target pollutants, two antibiotics of high concern polluting water sources, has been evaluated and CeO2/TiO2 exhibited the highest activity, achieving complete antibiotic degradation at very low photocatalyst concentrations. Our study provides new insights into the development of inexpensive heterostructured photocatalysts and suggests that the non-stoichiometry and characteristic d and f electronic orbital configuration of CeO2 have a significantly improved role in the enhancement of the photocatalytic reaction.

Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Photocatalytic Properties of ZnO Semiconductor Nanoparticles Synthesized by Prosopis laevigata

In this work, the photocatalytic activity of nanoparticles (NPs) of zinc oxide synthetized by Prosopis laevigata as a stabilizing agent was evaluated in the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye under UV radiation. The theoretical study of the photocatalytic degradation process was carried out by a Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) model. Zinc oxide nanoparticles were synthesized by varying the concentration of natural extract of Prosopis laevigata from 1, 2, and 4% (weight/volume), identifying the samples as ZnO_PL1%, ZnO_PL2%, and ZnO_PL4%, respectively. The characterization of the nanoparticles was carried out by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), where the absorption band for the Zn-O vibration at 400 cm-1 was presented; by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis) the value of the band gap was calculated, resulting in 2.80, 2.74 and 2.63 eV for the samples ZnO_PL1%, ZnO_PL2%, and ZnO_PL4%, respectively; XRD analysis indicated that the nanoparticles have a hexagonal zincite crystal structure with an average crystal size of 55, 50, and 49 in the sample ZnO_PL1%, ZnO_PL2%, and ZnO_PL4%, respectively. The morphology observed by TEM showed that the nanoparticles had a hemispherical shape, and the ZnO_PL4% sample presented sizes ranging between 29 and 45 nm. The photocatalytic study showed a total degradation of the MB in 150, 120, and 60 min for the samples ZnO_PL1%, ZnO_PL2%, and ZnO_PL4%, respectively. Also, the model explains the experimental observation of the first-order kinetic model in the limit of low concentrations of dye, indicating the influence of the mass transfer processes.

Investigation of Electrochromic, Combinatorial TiO2-SnO2 Mixed Layers by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry Using Different Optical Models

We determined the optimal composition of reactive magnetron-sputtered mixed layers of Titanium oxide and Tin oxide (TiO₂-SnO₂) for electrochromic purposes. We determined and mapped the composition and optical parameters using Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE). Ti and Sn targets were put separately from each other, and the Si-wafers on a glass substrate (30 cm × 30 cm) were moved under the two separated targets (Ti and Sn) in a reactive Argon-Oxygen (Ar-O₂) gas mixture. Different optical models, such as the Bruggeman Effective Medium Approximation (BEMA) or the 2-Tauc-Lorentz multiple oscillator model (2T-L), were used to obtain the thickness and composition maps of the sample. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) has been used to check the SE results. The performance of diverse optical models has been compared. We show that in the case of molecular-level mixed layers, 2T-L is better than EMA. The electrochromic effectiveness (the change of light absorption for the same electric charge) of mixed metal oxides (TiO₂-SnO₂) that are deposited by reactive sputtering has been mapped too.

Improvement of photocatalytic activity in the degradation of 4-chlorophenol and phenol in aqueous medium using tin-modified TiO2 photocatalysts

In this work, we present the synthesis of TiO₂ photocatalysts modified with different % mol of tin using the sol-gel method. The materials were characterized using different analytical techniques. The Rietveld refinement, XPS, Raman and UV-Vis techniques confirm the substitution of tin in the TiO₂ structural lattice due to changes in crystal lattice parameters, the low-energy shift of the Sn 3d_5/2 orbital, generation of oxygen vacancies and the decreased band gap and increased BET surface area. The material with 1 mol% tin shows superior catalytic activity compared to the references for the degradation of 40 ppm 4-chlorophenol (3 hours of reaction) and 50 ppm phenol (6 hours of reaction). Reactions fit pseudo first order kinetics in both instances. The increase in photodegradation efficiency was attributed to the generation of energy levels below the TiO₂ conduction band caused by the incorporation of 1% mol of tin, oxygen vacancies, and the heterojunction formed between the brookite-anatase-rutile, causing inhibition of the recombination of the electron (e^-) and hole (h⁺) photogenerated species. The easy synthesis, low cost and increased photodegradation efficiency of the photocatalyst with 1 mol% tin have the potential to favor the remediation of recalcitrant compounds in water.

Investigation of TiO2 Deposit on SiO2 Films: Synthesis, Characterization, and Efficiency for the Photocatalytic Discoloration of Methylene Blue in Aqueous Solution

TiO₂-SiO₂ thin films were created on Corning glass substrates using a simple method. Nine layers of SiO₂ were deposited; later, several layers of TiO₂ were deposited, and their influence was studied. Raman spectroscopy, high resolution transmission electron spectroscopy (HRTEM), an X-ray diffractometer (XRD), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used to describe the sample's shape, size, composition, and optical characteristics. Photocatalysis was realized through an experiment involving the deterioration of methylene blue (MB) solution exposed to UV-Vis radiation. With the increase of TiO₂ layers, the photocatalytic activity (PA) of the thin films showed an increasing trend, and the maximum degradation efficiency of MB by TiO₂-SiO₂ was 98%, which was significantly higher than that obtained by SiO₂ thin films. It was found that an anatase structure was formed at a calcination temperature of 550 °C; phases of brookite or rutile were not observed. Each nanoparticle's size was 13-18 nm. Due to photo-excitation occurring in both the SiO₂ and the TiO₂, deep UV light (λ = 232 nm) had to be used as a light source to increase photocatalytic activity.

Daylight Photoactive TiO2 Sol-Gel Nanoparticles: Sustainable Environmental Contribution

Visible-light-photoactive titania micro- or nanoparticles excel in a wide range of industrial areas, particularly in environmental remediation. The sol-gel methodology is one pivotal technique which has been successfully used to synthesize either crystalline and amorphous TiO₂ micro- and nanoparticles due to its outstanding chemical simplicity and versatility, along with the green chemistry approach. This short review aims to collect and discuss the most recent developments in visible-light-photoactive titania-based nanoparticles in the environmental remediation area. Titania co-doping, titania composite design, and, recently, amorphous networks have been the most used strategies to address this goal. Finally, a prediction regarding the future of these fields is given.

Aluminium doped ZnO nanostructures for efficient photodegradation of indigo carmine and azo carmine G in solar irradiation

Aluminium doped zinc oxide (AZO) nanomaterials (AlxZn1-xO) with x fraction varying as 0.02 and 0.04 were synthesized using the auto-combustion method using glycine as a fuel. The synthesized catalysts were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV–Visible Spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Raman spectroscopy, Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM). XRD results showed that synthesized materials possessed good crystallinity, while UV–VIS was employed to find the band gaps of synthesized materials. Raman was used to determine the vibrational modes in the synthesized nanoparticles, while TEM analysis was performed to study the morphology of the samples. Industrial effluents such as indigo carmine and azo carmine G were used to test the photodegradation ability of synthesised catalysts. Parameters such as the effect of catalyst loading, dye concentration and pH were studied. The reduction in crystallite size, band gap and increased lattice strain for the 4% AZO was the primary reason for the degradation in visible irradiation, degrading 97 and 99% equimolar concentrations of indigo carmine and azo carmine G in 140 min. The Al doped ZnO was found to be effective in faster degradation of dyes as compared to pure ZnO in presence of natural sunlight.

Fabrication of InVO4/SnWO4 heterostructured photocatalyst for efficient photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline under visible light

In the present study, novel InVO₄/SnWO₄ nanocomposites with different concentrations of SnWO₄ were successfully prepared using a facile hydrothermal technique and investigated employing a wide range of analytical methods for efficient photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline (TC). X-ray diffraction analysis showed the presence of the orthorhombic phases of both InVO₄ and SnWO₄ in the composite catalyst. Dispersion of SnWO₄ nanoplates over the InVO₄ nanosheets enhanced the synergistic interactions, improving the separation of charge carriers and their transfer. Furthermore, the formation of heterostructure expanded the absorption range and promoted visible light harvesting. The TC degradation efficiency of InVO₄/SnWO₄ nanocomposite (5 mg loading of SnWO₄) reached 97.13% in 80 min under visible light, with the kinetic rate constants 5.51 and 7.63 times greater than those of pure InVO₄ and SnWO₄, respectively. Additionally, the scavenger results proved that hydroxyl radicals and holes played a significant role in the photodegradation of TC. Furthermore, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and transient photocurrent response analysis showed enhanced e^-/h⁺ partition efficiency. Thus, the formation of heterostructure with strong synergistic interactions can effectively transfer the excited charge carriers and shorten the reunion rate. Accordingly, the InVO₄/SnWO₄ nanocomposites exhibited remarkable photocatalytic performance due to the increased number of charge carriers on the surface.

Effect of non-ionic surfactant in the solvothermal synthesis of anatase TiO2 nanoplates with a high percentage of exposed {001} facets and its role in the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye

The synthesis of anatase TiO₂ nanoparticles with controlled morphology and increased {001} facets exposed without the presence of fluorine-derived substances is a challenge. Herein, we report a highly effective approach to fabricate anatase TiO₂ nanoplates with exposed {001} facets and their exploitation as robust photocatalytic materials for dye remediation. These materials were synthesized under controlled hydrolysis and condensation reactions, using titanium (IV) n-butoxide in an ethanolic solution, with acetic and sulfuric acids, by a solvothermal method at 190 °C with or without the presence of the non-ionic surfactant Triton® X-100 and then characterized. During TiO₂ crystal synthesis, the effect of a non-ionic surfactant on the TiO₂ particle growth was investigated. Our results demonstrate that the proposed method can synthesize pure and crystalline anatase TiO₂ square nanoplates that form nanostructured spheres with high surface area, uniformly sized mesopores, and exposed {001} facets. The presence of non-ionic surfactant increased the exposed {001} facets percentage of the formed nanoplates from 69 to 80%, decreased the crystallite thickness, but unaffected its crystalline phase and band gap energy. The kinetic constants (K_a e K_b) for the synthesized TiO₂ anatase nanoplates are considerably higher than the commercial TiO₂ anatase constant (K_c). The synthesized photocatalysts show higher efficiency in the photocatalytic removal of methylene blue (MB) than commercial TiO₂ (for t = 120 min).