Dichroa febrifuga Lour. inhibits the production of IL-1beta and IL-6 through blocking NF-kappaB, MAPK and Akt activation in macrophages

Dichroa febrifuga Lour.: A review of its botany, traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicology, and progress in reducing toxicity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dichroa febrifuga Lour., a toxic but extensively used traditional Chinese medicine with a remarkable effect, is commonly called "Changshan" in China. It has been used to treat malaria and many other parasitic diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The study aims to provide a current overview of the progress in the research on traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicology, and methods of toxicity reduction of D. febrifuga. Additionally, further research directions and development prospects for the plant were put forward.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The article uses "Dichroa febrifuga Lour." "D. febrifuga" as the keyword and all relevant information on D. febrifuga was collected from electronic searches (Elsevier, PubMed, ACS, CNKI, Google Scholar, and Baidu Scholar), doctoral and master's dissertations and classic books about Chinese herbs.

RESULTS

30 chemical compounds, including alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids and other kinds, were isolated and identified from D. febrifuga. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that these components have a variety of pharmacological activities, including anti-malarial activities, anti-inflammatory activities, anti-tumor activities, anti-parasitic activities and anti-oomycete activities. Meanwhile, alkaloids, as the material basis of its efficacy, are also the source of its toxicity. It can cause multiple organ damage, including liver, kidney and heart, and cause adverse reactions such as nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea. In the current study, the toxicity can be reduced by modifying the structure of the compound, processing and changing the dosage forms.

CONCLUSIONS

There are few studies on the chemical constituents of D. febrifuga, so the components and their structure characterization contained in it can become the focus of future research. In view of the toxicity of D. febrifuga, there are many methods to reduce it, but the safety and rationality of these methods need further study.

The anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds isolated from Dichroa febrifuga leaves

Dichroa febrifuga Lour. is a traditional medicinal herb that has been applied in the treatment of malaria and some other infectious diseases. Studies recently have focused on the anti-inflammation of the extracts of Dichroa febrifuga Lour. although there have not many reports about which compounds play the essential role. Therefore, in this study, we isolated hydrangenoside C (1), isoarborinol (2), and methyl 1,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-fructofuranoside (3) from the leaves of Dichroa febrifuga. Subsequently, the anti-inflammatory property of 1-3 was assessed using an in vivo assay of edema mouse model which was induced by carrageenan. Out of the three, 2 inhibited the edema effectively and dose-dependently, similarly to diclofenac while there was no obvious activity observed in 1 and 3. The in silico results demonstrated that 2 enables binding to 5-LOX and PLA2 via generating h-bonds. This is the first study to mention the anti-inflammation of 2 in Dichroa febrifuga Lour., and would be a contribution to further studies to elucidate the promising bioactivities of this compound.

Morinda umbellata active fraction inhibits lipopolysaccharide induced proinflammatory cytokines by downregulating NF-κB activation

Morinda umbellata L. is a woody climber or liana distributed in south East Asia. It is a traditional medicinal plant with excellent curative effects against diarrhea, dysentery, and other stomach disorders. The present study was aimed to assess the effect of M. umbellata active fraction (MUAF) on various inflammatory mediators using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced in vivo model in Wistar rats. The effect of MUAF on secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were evaluated in LPS-induced experimental animals. The expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, COX-2, and nuclear factor NF-κB genes were also evaluated. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the active fraction was carried out to identify the active compounds present in MUAF. The results of oral acute toxicity suggested the non-toxic nature of MUAF. GC-MS analysis of the MUAF leaves revealed the presence of 8 compounds. The study demonstrated that the proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were significantly inhibited by MUAF in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, MUAF down-regulated the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, COX-2, and NF-κB genes. Our research findings suggest that the presence of anti-inflammatory compounds in MUAF can effectively inhibit LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-β, and IL-6 in vivo. It also suppressed the over expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 possibly via downregulating NF-κB activation.

Integrate UPLC-QE-MS/MS and Network Pharmacology to Investigate the Active Components and Action Mechanisms of Tea Cake Extract for Treating Cough

OBJECTIVE

Investigate the active components and mechanisms of tea cake extract (TCE) for treating cough.

METHODS

The components of TCE were tentatively identified by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-Exactive MS/MS (UPLC-QE-MS/MS), whose targets were obtained from databases of Swiss Target Prediction and traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database and analysis platform (TCMSP). Cough-related targets were retrieved from databases of Gene cards and Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM). After intersection targets were obtained, enrichment analysis of Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway was performed, and protein-protein interactions (PPI) network and active compound-intersection target-KEGG pathway network was constructed. Core active compounds and their targets were validated with molecular docking.

RESULTS

Total of 78 compounds were identified from TCE, including 24 flavonoids, 17 phenolic acids, 10 alkaloids, 7 organic acids, 5 triterpenes, 5 amino acids, 5 coumarins, 3 carbohydrates, 1 anthraquinone and 1 other. 347 intersection targets were obtained. The top 5 GO terms with most significant P-values were response to oxygen-containing compound, response to organic substance, response to chemical, cellular response to chemical stimulus, and regulation of biological quality. The top 5 KEGG pathways with most significant P-values were: PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, lipid and atherosclerosis, human cytomegalovirus infection, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and proteoglycans in cancer. The top 5 core active compounds were: quercetin, genistein, luteolin, kaempferol and emodin. The top 5 core targets were: protein kinase B (Akt1), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2), mitogen-activated protein kinase 1/3 (MAPK1/3), and phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1 (PIK3R1). The top 5 core active compounds could stably bind to their targets with LibDockScore higher than 100.

CONCLUSION

TCE plays the antitussive role by multiple components and targets. Core targets (AKT1, MAPK1, MAPK3 and PIK3R1) and core components (quercetin, genistein, luteolin and kaempferol) involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway are worth more attention in subsequent validation experiments.

Huanglian Jiedu Decoction Exerts Antipyretic Effect by Inhibiting MAPK Signaling Pathway

AIM

The aim of this study was to explore the antipyretic effect and potential mechanism of Huanglian Jiedu Decoction (HLJDD) on LPS-induced fever in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fever rat model was established by LPS. Anal temperature of rats was measured every 1 hour after modeling. TNF-α, IL-6, PGE2, and cAMP in rat serum or hypothalamus tissue were detected by ELISA kit. In order to explore the potential active ingredients and mechanism of antipyretic effect of HLJDD, we predicted the underlying antipyretic mechanism by using network pharmacology and then verified its mechanism by Western Blotting.

RESULTS

The results showed that HLJDD can alleviate LPS-induced fever in rats. The expression levels of TNF-α, IL-6, PGE2, and cAMP in the treatment group were significantly lower than those in the model group. Western Blotting results showed that the protein expression of p-ERK, p-JNK, and p-P38 was significantly inhibited.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that HLJDD has a good antipyretic effect on LPS-induced fever in rats, which may be closely related to the inhibition of MAPK signaling pathway.

C-Phycocyanin-a novel protein from Spirulina platensis- In vivo toxicity, antioxidant and immunomodulatory studies

A pigment-protein highly dominant in Spirulina is known as C-Phycocyanin. Earlier, in vitro studies has shown that C-phycocyanin is having many biological activities like antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, antiplatelet, hepatoprotective, and cholesterol-lowering properties. Interestingly, there are scanty in vivo experimental findings on the immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of C-phycocyanin. This work is aimed at in vivo evaluation of the effects of C-phycocyanin on immunomodulation and antioxidant potential in Balb/c mice. Our results of in vivo toxicity, immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of C-Phycocyanin suggests that C-phycocyanin is very safe for consumption and having substantial antioxidant potential and also possess immunomodulatory activities in Balb/c mice in a dosage dependent manner. C-phycocyanin doesn’t cause acute and subacute toxicity in the animal model (male, Balb/c mice) studied. We have reported that C-phycocyanin exhibited in vivo immunomodulation performance in this animal model.

Toxicological evaluation of the ultrasonic extract from Dichroae radix in mice and wistar rats

This study was aimed at evaluating the acute and subchronic toxicity of ultrasonic extract of Dichroae radix (UEDR) in mice and rats. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and thin layer chromatogrephy (TLC) were used to detect β-dichroine and α-dichroine in UEDR for quality control. The levels of β-dichroine and α-dichroine in UEDR were 1.46 and 1.53 mg/g, respectively. An oral LD₅₀ of 2.43 g/kg BW was observed in acute toxicity test. After 28-day repeated oral administration, compared with the control group, treatment-related changes in body weight (BW) and body weight gain (BWG), lymphocyte counts and ratios, as well as in the relative organ weights (ROWs) of liver, kidney, lung, and heart, were detected in the middle- and high-dose groups (P < 0.05, P < 0.01), no differences were noted in the serum biochemical parameters and necropsy examinations in both sexes at all doses. Histopathological examinations exhibited UEDR-associated signs of toxicity or abnormalities. After 14 days withdrawal, no statistically significant or toxicologically relevant differences were observed in any of the UEDR-treated groups, and the hispathological lesions in the high-dose group were alleviated. Findings showed that long-course and high-dose of UEDR administration was toxic, and showed dose-dependence, the toxic damage was reversible.

ECa 233 Suppresses LPS-Induced Proinflammatory Responses in Macrophages via Suppressing ERK1/2, p38 MAPK and Akt Pathways

A current anti-inflammatory agent often targets the prevention of inflammatory disorder development. The standardized Centella asiatica ECa 233 extract has been previously reported for anti-inflammatory effect. This study aimed to investigate its anti-inflammatory effect and mechanisms of ECa 233 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, nitric oxide (NO) assay, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot analysis. Our results found that ECa 233 significantly inhibited LPS-stimulated pro-inflammatory mediators production including ROS, NO and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β without cytotoxicity. In addition, ECa 233 downregulated not only the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), but also the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), activated protein kinase B (Akt), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) induced by LPS. The inhibition of LPS-induced inflammation due to ECa 233 offered an opportunity as a tentatively potential candidate for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Liposomal clodronate reduces Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase expression in the intestinal mucosa of rats with severe acute pancreatitis

AIM: To study the effect of liposomal clodronate on the expression of protein kinase B (Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinase [MAPK (ERK1/2)] in the intestinal mucosa of rats with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP), and to investigate the mechanism behind the therapeutic effect of liposomal clodronate on SAP-associated intestinal mucosal injury.

METHODS: Liposomal clodronate was prepared by means of thin film. Forty-eight SD rats were randomly divided into a model control group (C), a liposome control group (P), and a liposomal clodronate group (T). SAP was induced in rats of groups P and T by injection of sodium taurocholate under the pancreatic capsule, while group C received equal volume of normal saline. Serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and AMS were measured 2 and 6 h after SAP induction. Pathological alterations in the intestinal mucosa were observed.

RESULTS: Serum levels of AMS, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly elevated in group P compared to group C (all P < 0.01). Compared with group P, serum levels of AMS, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly decreased in group T (all P < 0.01). Pathological alterations (scores) in the intestinal mucosa were significantly attenuated in group T compared to group P. The expression of Akt and MAPK (ERK1/2) was significantly decreased in group T compared to group P.

CONCLUSION: Macrophages play an important role in the pathogenesis of intestinal mucosal injury in SAP. Macrophages can be depleted via phagocytosis of liposome encapsulated clodronate. Liposomal clodronate alleviates intestinal mucosal injury in SAP rats possibly by decreasing the expression of Akt and MAPK (ERK1/2).

Achyranthes japonica exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via NF-κB suppression and HO-1 induction in macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The roots of Achyranthes japonica Nakai have been used in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of edema and arthritis in Korea.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism responsible for anti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of A. japonica roots (AJ) in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nitric oxide (NO) production and as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were examined in TG-elicited peritoneal macrophages and RAW 264.7 cells. Cell viability was monitored by MTT assay. Protein and mRNA expressions were determined by Western blotting and RT-PCR, respectively. The activity of NF-κB and Nrf2 were examined by EMSA, immunocytochemistry or reporter assay.

RESULTS

AJ inhibited LPS-induced NO secretion as well as iNOS expression, without affecting cell viability. Furthermore, AJ suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, degradation of IκB-α, phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. Further study demonstrated that AJ induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) gene expression via nuclear translocation and transactivation of Nrf2. In addition, the inhibitory effects of AJ on iNOS expression were abrogated by small interfering RNA-mediated knock-down of HO-1.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that AJ suppresses LPS-induced NO production and iNOS expression in macrophages through the inhibition of IκB/NF-κB and MAPK as well as the Nrf2-mediated HO-1 induction. These findings provide the scientific rationale for anti-inflammatory therapeutic use of A. japonica roots.

8-(Tosylamino)quinoline inhibits macrophage-mediated inflammation by suppressing NF-κB signaling

AIM

The macrophage-mediated inflammatory response may contribute to the development of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis and septic shock. This study was to characterize several new compounds to suppress macrophage-mediated inflammation.

METHODS

Peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 male mice and RAW264.7 cells were examined. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in the cells exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory activity were investigated via measuring transcription factor activation in response to specific signals and via assaying the activities of the target kinases.

RESULTS

Of 7 candidate compounds tested, 8-(tosylamino)quinoline (8-TQ, compound 7) exhibited the strongest activities in suppressing the production of NO, TNF-α, and PGE(2) in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages (the IC(50) values=1-5 μmol/L). This compound (1.25-20 μmol/L) dose-dependently suppressed the expression of the pro-inflammatory genes for iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, and the cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 at the level of transcription in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells. 8-TQ (20 μmol/L) significantly suppressed the activation of NF-κB and its upstream signaling elements, including inhibitor of κB (IκBα), IκBα kinase (IKK) and Akt in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells. In in vivo experiments, oral administration of 20 and 40 mg/kg 8-TQ for 3 d significantly alleviated the signs of LPS-induced hepatitis and HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis, respectively, in ICR mice.

CONCLUSION

8-TQ (compound 7) exerts significant anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of the Akt/NF-κB pathway, thus may be developed as a novel anti-inflammatory drug.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ethanol extract from Orostachys japonicus on modulation of signal pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

In this study, powder of Orostachys japonicus A. Berger (O. japonicus) was extracted with 95% ethyl alcohol and fractionated using a series of organic solvents, including n-hexane (hexane), dichloromethane (DCM), ethylacetate (EtOAc), n-butanol (BuOH), and water (H(2)O). We investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of these O. japonicus extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Their effects on the expression of inflammatory mediators and transcription factors were analyzed by Western blotting. DCM fraction significantly inhibited formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Phosphorylation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor complex nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), one of its downstream proteins, were also suppressed by DCM fraction. These effects were regulated by upsteam proteins in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathways. Taken together, our data suggest that O. japonicus could be used as a potential source for anti-inflammatory agents.

Anti-inflammatory, pro-apoptotic, and anti-proliferative effects of a methanolic neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract are mediated via modulation of the nuclear factor-κB pathway

Azadirachta indica (neem tree) is used in traditional Indian medicine for its pharmacological properties including cancer prevention and treatment. Here, we studied a neem extract's anti-inflammatory potential via the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, linked to cancer, inflammation, and apoptosis. Cultured human leukemia cells were treated with a methanolic neem leaf extract with or without tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α stimulation. Inhibition of NF-κB activity was demonstrated by luciferase assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Inhibition of viability by neem extracts was assessed by luminescent assays. Western blot analysis allowed assessing the inhibitory effect of the neem extract on TNF-α-induced degradation of inhibitor of κB (IκB) and nuclear translocation of the NF-κB p50/p65 heterodimer. Inhibition of IκB kinase (IKK) activity was shown as well as the effect of neem extract on the induction of apoptotic cell death mechanisms by nuclear fragmentation analysis and flow cytometry analysis. In conclusion, our data provide evidence for a strong effect of the neem extract on pro-inflammatory cell signaling and apoptotic cell death mechanisms, contributing to a better understanding of the mechanisms triggered by Azadirachta indica.

Icariin attenuates LPS-induced acute inflammatory responses: involvement of PI3K/Akt and NF-kappaB signaling pathway

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism underlying the attenuation of LPS-induced lung inflammation by icariin in vivo and in vitro. The anti-inflammatory effects of icariin on LPS-induced acute inflammatory and the molecular mechanism were investigated. Pretreatment with icarrin (20mg/kg) could attenuate acute lung inflammation by inhibiting mRNA expressions of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), metalloproteinase cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the lung of LPS-treated mice. In addition, icariin suppressed the secretion of TNF-alpha, prostaglandin E2 (PGE(2)) and nitric oxide (NO) as well as NF-kappaB p65 activation. Furthermore, decreased myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was observed in the lung tissue and LPS-induced cytotoxicity in the RAW 264.7 macrophages cells was also markedly attenuated by icariin. Western blotting analysis and confocal microscopy showed that icariin pretreatment reduced the nucleus transportation and constant level of NF-kappaB p65 in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. However, the protective effects of icariin were reversed by a PI3K/Akt inhibitor (wortmannin). Our in vitro and in vivo results suggested that activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and the inhibition of NF-kappaB were involved in the protective effects of icariin on LPS-induced acute inflammatory responses.

Baicalin attenuates inflammation by inhibiting NF-kappaB activation in cigarette smoke induced inflammatory models

Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kappaB) is a key player in the inflammatory response. Baicalin is an extract from roots of the plant scutellaria baicalensis. Many studies show that baicalin has anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and antiviral activities. Here we investigated the influence of baicalin on COPD inflammation and the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effect in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, COPD rat model was established by cigarette smoke (CS) exposure. Thirty-six Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly assigned to six experimental groups: control, CS, dexamethasone (DXM), and baicalin (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg). The lung pathology was observed and leukocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were counted by Optical microscope. Pulmonary function was measured by using an animal plethysmograph. The production of cytokines was measured by ELISA and the expression levels of NF-kappaB p65 protein were detected by immunohistochemistry. The results in vivo show CS exposure significantly increased the expression of IL-8, IL-6 and TNF-alpha in plasma and BALF and enhanced NF-kappaB p65 expression in the lungs. Baicalin treatment markedly attenuated the inflammatory effects of CS. In vitro, cell model was established by using cigarette smoke extract (CSE) to stimulate type II pneumocytes. Type II pneumocytes were also divided into six groups: control, CSE, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), and baicalin (5 mumol, 10 mumol, 20 mumol). Cytokines levels were measured by ELISA. Expression of IkappaB and p65 phosphorylation was detected by western blotting. NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity was detected by EMSA. The results show that CSE resulted in increasing IL-8, IL-6 and TNF-alpha expression and activation of NF-kappaB. The proinflammatory effects of CSE were inhibited by treatment of baicalin in a dose-dependent manner. It can be concluded that baicalin has significant anti-inflammatory effects on CS induced COPD rat models and CSE-induced cell models, and the effectiveness increases with increasing baicalin dosage. The anti-inflammatory effect is likely achieved by inhibiting the NF-kappaB pathway.

Inhibition of ADP-ribosylation factor-like 6 interacting protein 1 suppresses proliferation and reduces tumor cell invasion in CaSki human cervical cancer cells

ADP-ribosylation factor-like 6 interacting protein 1 (ARL6IP1) is an apoptotic regulator. To investigate the role of ARL6IP1 in human cervical cancer progression, we designed and used short hairpin RNA (shRNA) to inhibit ARL6IP1 expression in CaSki cells and validated its effect on cell proliferation and invasion. Changes in gene expression were analyzed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or western blot. Down-regulation of ARL6IP1 expression by infection with ARL6IP1-specific RNAi-expressing vector inhibited CaSki cell proliferation and colony formation. In addition, down-regulation of ARL6IP1 expression arrested CaSki cell cycling at the G0/G1 phase and mitigated CaSki cell migration, determined by wound healing assays. ARL6IP1 was involved in cervical cancer cell growth, cell cycle progression, and invasion through regulation of gene expression, such as Caspase-3, Caspase-9, p53, TAp63, NF-κB, MAPK, Bcl-2, and Bcl-xL, suggesting that ARL6IP1 could have important implications in cervical cancer biology. Our findings illustrate the biological significance of ARL6IP1 in cervical cancer progression, and provide novel evidence that ARL6IP1 may serve as a therapeutic target in the prevention of human cervical cancer.