Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat (CM) extract protects human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against MPP+-induced cytotoxicity

Exploring Plants with Flowers: From Therapeutic Nutritional Benefits to Innovative Sustainable Uses

Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study's goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being.

Neuroprotective effects of Chrysanthemum morifolium on cerebral ischemia- reperfusion injury contributes to the oxidative stress suppression and related Keap1/Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke, the cause of death and disability worldwide, is closely related to oxidative stress damage. Chrysanthemum has profound antiantioxidant activity. We aimed to verify whether Chrysanthemum morifolium extract (CME) influences brain injury in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CR/RI) model.

METHODS

In vitro, rat hippocampal H19-7 neurons were pretreated with CME, CR/RI was simulated with oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). The cell viability, apoptosis, lactate dehydrogenase release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, malonaldehyde (MDA) content and superoxide dismutase（SOD） activity were detected. In vivo, middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model rats were pre-administered with CME, and then behavioral test, triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC), hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE), terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL), ROS immunofluorescence, MDA and SOD activity were tested. Furthermore, Keap1/Nrf2 signaling of CME in CI/RI was investigated.

RESULTS

In OGD/R induced in H19-7 cells, CME increased OGD/R-induced cell viability and reduced cell apoptosis, which was reversed by siNrf2 transfection . In MCAO rats, CME improved the neurological deficits and alleviated brain injury. However, co-treatment with MLK385 counteracted these neuroprotective effects of CME on MCAO rats.

CONCLUSION

CME could significantly reduce oxidative stress and nerve injury in vitro and in vivo models of CI/RI by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway.

Regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction induced cell apoptosis is a potential therapeutic strategy for herbal medicine to treat neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disease is a progressive neurodegeneration caused by genetic and environmental factors. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD) are the three most common neurodegenerative diseases clinically. Unfortunately, the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing year by year. However, the current available drugs have poor efficacy and large side effects, which brings a great burden to the patients and the society. Increasing evidence suggests that occurrence and development of the neurodegenerative diseases is closely related to the mitochondrial dysfunction, which can affect mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, as well as mitochondrial mitophagy. Through the disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis, nerve cells undergo varying degrees of apoptosis. Interestingly, it has been shown in recent years that the natural agents derived from herbal medicines are beneficial for prevention/treatment of neurodegenerative diseases via regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the potential therapeutic agents from herbal medicines for treating neurodegenerative diseases via suppressing apoptosis through regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction, in order to provide a foundation for the development of more candidate drugs for neurodegenerative diseases from herbal medicine.

The effect of a chrysanthemum water extract in protecting the retina of mice from light damage

Background

Oxidative stress can induce age-related diseases. Age-related retinal diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), are difficult to cure owing to their complicated mechanisms. Although anti-neovascular therapeutics are used to treat wet AMD, vision cannot always be completely restored, and disease progression cannot always be inhibited. Therefore, determining a method to prevent or slow retinal damage is important. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of a chrysanthemum water extract rich in flavone on the oxidatively stressed retina of mice.

Methods

Light damage was induced to establish oxidative stress mouse models. For in vitro experiments, ARPE-19 cells were cultured and divided into four groups: control, light-damaged, and low- and high-dose chrysanthemum extract. No treatment was administered in the control group. The light-damaged and low- and high-dose chrysanthemum extract groups were exposed to a similar white light level. The chrysanthemum extract was added at a low dose of 0.4 mg/mL or a high dose of 1.0 mg/mL before cell exposure to 2500-lx white light. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and cellular viability were measured using MTT and immunofluorescence staining. For in vivo experiments, C57BL/6 J mice were divided into the same four groups. Low- (0.23 g/kg/day) and high-dose (0.38 g/kg/day) chrysanthemum extracts were continuously intragastrically administered for 8 weeks before mouse exposure to 10,000-lx white light. Retinal function was evaluated using electroretinography. In vivo optical coherence tomography and in vitro haematoxylin and eosin staining were performed to observe the pathological retinal changes in each group after light damage. Fluorescein fundus angiography of the arteriovenous vessel was performed, and the findings were analysed using the AngioTool software. TUNEL immunofluorescence staining was used to assess isolated retinal apoptosis.

Results

In vitro, increased ROS production and decreased ARPE-19 cell viability were found in the light-damaged group. Improved ARPE-19 cell viability and reduced ROS levels were observed in the chrysanthemum extract treatment groups. In vivo, dysfunctional retinas and abnormal retinal structures were found in the light-damaged group, as well as increased apoptosis in the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and inner and outer nuclear layers. The apoptosis rate in the same layers was lower in the chrysanthemum extract treatment groups than in the light-damaged group. The production of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), increased in the treatment groups. NF-κB in the nucleus and TNF-α were more highly expressed in the light-damaged group than in the low- and high-dose chrysanthemum extract groups.

Conclusions

Light damage-induced retinal oxidative stress can lead to ROS accumulation in the retinal tissues. Herein, RGC and photoreceptor layer apoptosis was triggered, and NF-κB in the nucleus and TNF-α were highly expressed in the light-damaged group. Preventive chrysanthemum extract administration decreased ROS production by increasing SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px activities and reversing the negative changes, demonstrating a potential protective effect on the retina.

Study on the chemical profile of chrysanthemum and the evaluation of the similarities and differences between different cultivars

Chrysanthemum originates in China and has been cultivated for tea and food utilizations over 2 thousand years. According to differences in origin and processing methods, Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. can be categorized into many cultivars. This study aims to investigate the chemical components of chrysanthemum and clarify the similarities and differences between different chrysanthemum varieties. A total of 55 non-volatile components and 66 volatile components in chrysanthemum were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods, respectively. A rapid UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 13 active components in 30 batches chrysanthemum samples of ten different cultivars. Multivariate statistical techniques were applied to analyze the samples. The result indicated that Boju, Huaiju and Chuju were more similar in terms of the ingredient content and Qiju, Jinsihuangju, Huangju, Hangju, Gongju, Fubaiju, Baiju have a high degree of similarity. Furthermore, isochlorogenic acid C, luteolin, apigenin-7-glucoside, chlorogenic acid, apigenin and cryptochlorogenic acid plays an important role in distinguishing different varieties of chrysanthemum. The established strategy explains the similarities and differences between different varieties of chrysanthemums to some extent, and provides certain reference value for the choice of chrysanthemums for eating or medicinal purposes in daily life.

A review: traditional herbs and remedies impacting pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, leading to misbalance and loss of coordination. Current therapies are claimed only for symptomatic relief, on long-term use, which causes alteration in basal ganglia, and give rise to various adverse effects like dyskinesia and extra pyramidal side effects, which is reversed and proved to be attenuated with the help of various herbal approaches. Therefore, in order to attenuate the dopaminergic complications, focus of current research has been shifted from dopaminergic to non-dopaminergic strategies. Herbs and herbal remedies seems to be a better option to overcome the complications associated with current dopaminergic therapies. In recent years, various herbs and herbal remedies based on Ayurveda, traditional Chinese and Korean remedies, have become the target of various researches. These herbs and their bioactive compound are being extensively used to treat PD in India, China, Japan, and Korea. The major focus of this current review is to analyze preclinical studies with reference to various herbs, bioactive compounds, and traditional remedies for the management of Parkinson disorder, which will give an insight towards clinical trials.

Comparative metabolomics analysis revealed biomarkers and distinct flavonoid biosynthesis regulation in Chrysanthemum mongolicum and C. rhombifolium

INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemums are traditional flowers that originated in China and have high ornamental, economic and medicinal value. They are widely used as herbal remedies and consumed as food or beverages in folk medicine. However, little is known about their metabolic composition.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this work were to determine the metabolic composition of and natural variation among different species of Chrysanthemum and to explore new potential resources for drug discovery and sustainable utilisation of wild Chrysanthemum.

METHODS

The metabolomes of Chrysanthemum mongolicum (Ling) Tzvel. and Chrysanthemum rhombifolium H. Ohashi & Yonek. were compared using a widely targeted metabolomics approach based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

In total, 477 metabolites were identified, of which 72 showed significant differences in expression between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium, mainly in flavonoids, organic acids and nucleotides. The flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway showed significant enrichment among the differentially expressed metabolites. The contents of genkwanin, trigonelline, diosmin, narcissoside, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, linarin, N',N'-p-coumarin, C-hexosyl-tricetin O-pentoside, chrysoeriol, acacetin and kaempferol-3-O-gentiobioside were significantly different between the two species and represent potential biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

The types of flavonoid-related metabolites in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway differed between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium. The mechanisms underlying the unique adaptations of these two species to their environments may involve variations in the composition and abundance of flavonoids, organic acids, and nucleotides. These methods are promising to identify functional compounds in Chrysanthemum species and can provide potential resources for drug discovery and the sustainable utilisation of Chrysanthemum plants.

The Positive Role and Mechanism of Herbal Medicine in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease, manifested by the progressive functional impairment of the midbrain nigral dopaminergic neurons. Due to the unclear underlying pathogenesis, disease-modifying drugs for PD remain elusive. In Asia, such as in China and India, herbal medicines have been used in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease for thousands of years, which recently attracted considerable attention because of the development of curative drugs for PD. In this review, we first summarized the pathogenic factors of PD including protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, ion accumulation, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress, and the related recent advances. Secondly, we summarized 32 Chinese herbal medicines (belonging to 24 genera, such as Acanthopanax, Alpinia, and Astragalus), 22 Chinese traditional herbal formulations, and 3 Indian herbal medicines, of which the ethanol/water extraction or main bioactive compounds have been extensively investigated on PD models both in vitro and in vivo. We elaborately provided pictures of the representative herbs and the structural formula of the bioactive components (such as leutheroside B and astragaloside IV) of the herbal medicines. Also, we specified the potential targets of the bioactive compounds or extractions of herbs in view of the signaling pathways such as PI3K, NF-κB, and AMPK which are implicated in oxidative and inflammatory stress in neurons. We consider that this knowledge of herbal medicines or their bioactive components can be favorable for the development of disease-modifying drugs for PD.

Antioxidant and anticancer potentials of edible flowers: where do we stand?

Edible flowers are attracting special therapeutic attention and their administration is on the rise. Edible flowers play pivotal modulatory roles on oxidative stress and related interconnected apoptotic/inflammatory pathways toward the treatment of cancer. In this review, we highlighted the phytochemical content and therapeutic applications of edible flowers, as well as their modulatory potential on the oxidative stress pathways and apoptotic/inflammatory mediators, resulting in anticancer effects. Edible flowers are promising sources of phytochemicals (e.g., phenolic compounds, carotenoids, terpenoids) with several therapeutic effects. They possess anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, anti-depressant, anxiolytic, anti-obesity, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects. Edible flowers potentially modulate oxidative stress by targeting erythroid nuclear transcription factor-2/extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (Nrf2/ERK/MAPK), reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA) and antioxidant response elements (AREs). As the interconnected pathways to oxidative stress, inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), interleukins (ILs) as well as apoptotic pathways such as Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), Bcl-2, caspase and cytochrome C are critical targets of edible flowers in combating cancer. In this regard, edible flowers could play promising anticancer effects by targeting oxidative stress and downstream dysregulated pathways.

Chrysanthemum ethanol extract induced loss of Kupffer cells via the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway

Chrysanthemum has been viewed as an important traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with a long history. Research studies indicated many potential pharmaceutical effects of chrysanthemum extract. However, hardly any investigation has been performed to describe its toxicity. In this study, acute application of chrysanthemum ethanol extract (CEE, 300 mg kg^-1) was found to induce apoptosis of hepatic Kupffer cells in vivo. CEE was also observed to induce apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Further analysis using flow cytometry and western blotting revealed that CEE induced apoptosis of RAW264.7 cells via a mitochondria-dependent pathway. After a HPLC combined screening assay, we narrowed down the toxicity caused by the petroleum extract of CEE (CEE-PE, 66 μg mL^-1). In vivo effects of CEE-PE were also tested in mice. Additionally, nine potential toxic compounds were isolated and identified from CEE-PE. In all, we found that components with small polarities in CEE could induce apoptosis of Kupffer cells and macrophages via a mitochondrial dependent pathway, which might draw attention to the safety issues of everyday use of chrysanthemum.

Total glucosides of paeony (TGP) extracted from Radix Paeoniae Alba exerts neuroprotective effects in MPTP-induced experimental parkinsonism by regulating the cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The totally-amounted glucosides of paeony (TGP), which are made up of paeoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypaeoniflorin as well as benzoylpaeoniflorin, constitute the Baishao' actively-working component extracted from Radix Paeonia alba employed in conventional oriental medicine aiming to treat cerebrovascular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease. However, its pharmacologic mechanism is not clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The initial investigation was made on TGP's neuroprotective effects on PD of the mouse model based on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) as well as the identification of potential involvement of a molecular signaling pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The evaluation of the behavioral damage as well as neurotoxicity in mice was made through MPTP. Spontaneous motor activity test, as well as a test of Rota-rod on mice was employed for the measurement of bradykinesia symptom. Additionally, liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS-MS) works as the determiner of the main monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) along with its metabolites 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) as well as homovanillic acid (HVA) based on mouse hippocampus connected with the anti-Parkinson's disease like effect of TGP. Besides, the measurement of the effects of TGP treatment on the expressions level of TH, DAT, a-synuclein, p-CREBS¹³³ as well as apoptosis influence was made with the help of western-blot assay with apoptosis-related markers such as Bax and Bcl-2.

RESULTS

The results showed that TGP treatment lessened the behavior-based loss shown "in the spontaneous motor activity as well as the potential of falling to rotarod test". In addition, we found that pretreatment with TGP markedly improved motor coordination, striatal dopamine and its metabolite levels. Furthermore, pretreatment of TGP conducted the protection for dopaminergic neurons with the prevented MPTP-induced reductions within the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), substantia nigra dopaminergic transporter (DAT), as well as increasing α-synuclein protein levels with transformed dopamine catabolism as well as inhibited dopamine turnover. Besides, TGP treatment helped reversed apoptosis signaling molecules Bcl-2/Bax' reduction; meanwhile improving p-CREBS¹³³ the factor of growth signaling in the substantia nigra' decrease.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that TGP can enhance dopaminergic neuron's cell survival in the SNpc in virtue of the activated cAMP/PKA/CREB factor of growth on inhibiting the pathway of second messenger apoptosis as well. In conclusion, the current findings indicate TGP is expected to be a new cure for PD.

Widely Targeted Metabolomics Analysis Reveals the Effect of Flooding Stress on the Synthesis of Flavonoids in Chrysanthemum morifolium

Chrysanthemum morifolium. cv "Hangju" is an important medicinal material with many functions in China. Flavonoids as the main secondary metabolites are a major class of medicinal components in "Hangju" and its composition and content can change significantly after flooding. This study mimicked the flooding stress of "Hangju" during flower bud differentiation and detected its metabolites in different growth stages. From widely targeted metabolomics data, 661 metabolites were detected, of which 46 differential metabolites exist simultaneously in the different growth stages of "Hangju". The top three types of the 46 differential metabolites were flavone C-glycosides, flavonol and flavone. Our results demonstrated that the accumulation of flavonoids in different growth stages of "Hangju" was different; however, quercetin, eriodictyol and most of the flavone C-glycosides were significantly enhanced in the two stages after flooding stress. The expression of key enzyme genes in the flavonoid synthesis pathway were determined using RT-qPCR, which verified the consistency of the expression levels of CHI, F3H, DFR and ANS with the content of the corresponding flavonoids. A regulatory network of flavonoid biosynthesis was established to illustrate that flooding stress can change the accumulation of flavonoids by affecting the expression of the corresponding key enzymes in the flavonoid synthesis pathway.

An integration of UPLC-DAD/ESI-Q-TOF MS, GC-MS, and PCA analysis for quality evaluation and identification of cultivars of Chrysanthemi Flos (Juhua)

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemi Flos (CF), as a popular traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has five main cultivars in China, namely "Chuju", "Boju", "Gongju", "Huaiju" and "Hangju". Due to their habitats and processing methods, great quality variations occur yet no systematical study has ever been carried out to evaluate such variations.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aim to establish a new approach that can serve both as a quality control method and as an identification method for cultivars of CF.

METHOD

The components in CF samples were identified by a combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS. Furthermore, a multimodal quantitative method was established by UPLC-UV coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) and the similarity evaluation system (SES), which was used to control and identify four cultivars of CF.

RESULTS

18 compounds of flavonoids and caffeoylquinic acids were identified and ten of them were quantified using UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS. Different cultivars of CF could be clearly distinguished with the fingerprints evaluation and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of 74 volatile compounds were detected by GC/MS. The distinctness of volatile components was observed. By the combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS, an identification and quality control method for CF was successfully established.

CONCLUSION

The combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS could act as a comprehensive multimodal method for both identification and quality control of herbal medicines. This study provided new insights into the overall evaluation method for herbal medicines possessing different cultivars.

New Caffeoylquinic Acid Derivatives and Flavanone Glycoside from the Flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium and Their Bioactivities

The Chrysanthemum morifolium flower is widely used in China and Japan as a food, beverage, and medicine for many diseases. In our work, two new caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (1, 2), a new flavanone glycoside (3), and six reported flavanones (4–9) were isolated and identified from the flowers of C. morifolium. The chemical structures of all isolates were elucidated by the analysis of comprehensive spectroscopic data as well as by comparison with previously reported data. The isolated constituents 1–8 were evaluated for their neuroprotective activity, and compounds 3 and 4 displayed neuroprotective effects against hydrogen peroxide-induced neurotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells.

Six new compounds from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium and their biological activities

Flower of Chrysanthemum morifolium is widely used in China and Japan as a folk medicine in treatment of many diseases. However, its active compounds remain largely unknown. In the present work, we have isolated, purified and characterized six new compounds (1-6), including two new arylnaphthalene lignans and four new phenolic glycosides, together with eight known compounds (7-14), from the flower of C. morifolium. Their structures and absolute configurations were elucidated in detail using 1D and 2D NMR, UV, IR, ORD, HRESIMS and ECD spectrometric data. In addition, compounds 1-3 possessed the significant neuroprotective activity against hydrogen peroxide-induced neurotoxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells.

Sophora flavescens Aiton Decreases MPP+-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction in SH-SY5Y Cells

Sophora flavescens Aiton (SF) has been used to treat various diseases including fever and inflammation in China, South Korea and Japan. Several recent reports have shown that SF has anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, indicating that it is a promising candidate for treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). We evaluated the protective effect of SF against neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP⁺)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, an in vitro PD model. SH-SY5Y cells were incubated with SF for 24 h, after which they were treated with MPP⁺. MPP⁺-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis were confirmed by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated UTP nick end labeling assay. MitoSOX red mitochondrial superoxide indicator, tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester perchlorate and Parkin, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), and DJ-1 immunofluorescent staining were conducted to confirm the mitochondrial function. In addition, western blot was performed to evaluate apoptosis factors (Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and cytochrome c) and mitochondrial function-related factors (Parkin, PINK1 and DJ-1). SF suppressed MPP⁺-induced cytotoxicity, apoptosis and collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential by inhibiting the increase of reactive oxidative species (ROS) and DNA fragmentation, and controlling Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and cytochrome c expression. Moreover, it attenuated Parkin, PINK1 and DJ-1 expression from MPP⁺-induced decrease. SF effectively suppressed MPP⁺-induced cytotoxicity, apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction by regulating generation of ROS, disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondria-dependent apoptosis and loss or mutation of mitochondria-related PD markers including Parkin, PINK1 and DJ-1.

Extraction of flavonoids from Chrysanthemum morifolium and antitumor activity in vitro

The aim of the present study was to optimize flavonoid extraction from Chrysanthemum morifolium and to study the antitumor effects of flavonoids on human gastric cancer MKN45 cells in vitro. A single factor experiment was designed and the extraction process was optimized using an orthogonal test. MKN45 cells were treated with different concentrations of flavonoid from Chrysanthemum morifolium for 24 and 48 h and the inhibitory effect on the MKN45 cells was evaluated using an MTT assay. Following staining with Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide, flow cytometry was performed. The optimized flavonoid extraction conditions were as follows: Duration of ultrasonic treatment: 35 min; ethanol concentration: 75%; extraction temperature: 80°Cand liquid-to-solid ratio 25: 1. Under the above conditions, the extraction rate of flavonoids was 5.24%. When compared with a blank control group, flavonoids extracted from Chrysanthemum morifolium inhibited the proliferation of MKN45 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, in cell groups treated with low, moderate and high concentrations of flavonoid, it was observed that the proportion of apoptotic cells increased in a dose-dependent manner. The extraction process optimized by the orthogonal test achieved a high yield and satisfactory extraction efficiency. Additionally, the experiment demonstrated that flavonoids from Chrysanthemum morifolium inhibited the growth of MKN45 cells and induced their apoptosis. Thus, flavonoids from Chrysanthemum morifolium exerted antitumor effects on MKN45 cells, which may be exploited as a potential antitumor therapeutic for gastric cancer.

The Medicinal Chemistry of Natural and Semisynthetic Compounds against Parkinson's and Huntington's Diseases

Among the diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS), neurodegenerations attract the interest of both the clinician and the medicinal chemist. The increasing average age of population, the growing number of patients, and the lack of long-term effective remedies push ahead the quest for novel tools against this class of pathologies. We present a review on the state of the art of the molecules (or combination of molecules) of natural origin that are currently under study against two well-defined pathologies: Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). Nowadays, very few tools are available for preventing or counteracting the progression of such diseases. Two major parameters were considered for the preparation of this review: particular attention was reserved to these research works presenting well-defined molecular mechanisms for the studied compounds, and where available, papers reporting in vivo data were preferred. A literature search for peer-reviewed articles using PubMed, Scopus, and Reaxys databases was performed, exploiting different keywords and logical operators: 91 papers were considered (preferentially published after 2015). The review presents a brief overview on the etiology of the studied neurodegenerations and the current treatments, followed by a detailed discussion of the natural and semisynthetic compounds dividing them in different paragraphs considering their several mechanisms of action.

Phytochemical Content, Health Benefits, and Toxicology of Common Edible Flowers: A Review (2000-2015)

Edible flowers contain numerous phytochemicals which contribute to their health benefits, and consumption of edible flowers has increased significantly in recent years. While many researchers have been conducted, no literature review of the health benefits of common edible flowers and their phytochemicals has been compiled. This review aimed to present the findings of research conducted from 2000 to 2015 on the species, traditional application, phytochemicals, health benefits, and the toxicology of common edible flowers. It was found in 15 species of common edible flowers that four flavonols, three flavones, four flavanols, three anthocyanins, three phenolic acids and their derivatives were common phytochemicals and they contributed to the health benefits such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective effect. Toxicology studies have been conducted to evaluate the safety of common edible flowers and provide information on their dosages and usages.

Neuroprotective mechanisms of plant extracts against MPTP induced neurotoxicity: Future applications in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's disease, affecting about seven to 10 million patients worldwide. The major pathological features of PD are loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway and accumulation of alpha-synuclein molecules, forming Lewy bodies. Until now, there is no effective cure for PD, and investigators are searching for neuroprotective strategies to stop or slow the disease progression. The MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) induced neurotoxicity of the nigrostriatal pathway has been used to initiate PD in animal models. Multiple experimental studies showed the ability of several plant extracts to protect against MPTP induced neurotoxicity through activation of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione reductase enzymes, which reduce the cellular concentration of free radicals, preventing intracellular Ca⁺⁺ release and subsequent apoptosis signaling. Other neuroprotective mechanisms of plant extracts include promoting autophagy of alpha-synuclein molecules and exerting an antiapoptotic activity via inhibition of proteolytic poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and preventing caspase cleavage. The variety of neuroprotective mechanisms of natural plant extracts may allow researchers to target PD progression in different pathological stages and may be through multiple pathways. Further investigations are required to translate these neuroprotective mechanisms into safe and effective treatments for PD.

A Potential Alternative against Neurodegenerative Diseases: Phytodrugs

Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) primarily affect the neurons in the human brain secondary to oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. ND are more common and have a disproportionate impact on countries with longer life expectancies and represent the fourth highest source of overall disease burden in the high-income countries. A large majority of the medicinal plant compounds, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenes, have therapeutic properties. Polyphenols are the most common active compounds in herbs and vegetables consumed by man. The biological bioactivity of polyphenols against neurodegeneration is mainly due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiamyloidogenic effects. Multiple scientific studies support the use of herbal medicine in the treatment of ND; however, relevant aspects are still pending to explore such as metabolic analysis, pharmacokinetics, and brain bioavailability.

Evaluation of antioxidant and neuroprotective effect of Hippophae rhamnoides (L.) on oxidative stress induced cytotoxicity in human neural cell line IMR32

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

Hippophae rhamnoides is an edible, nutrient rich plant found in the northern regions of India. It belongs to the family Elaeagnaceae and is well known for its traditional pharmacological activities. The present study was aimed to investigate the antioxidant and neuroprotective activities of H. rhamnoides.

METHODOLOGY

The hydroalcoholic extract of H. rhamnoides was evaluated for free radical scavenging activity using DPPH, hydroxyl radical scavenging and ferric thiocyanate assays. In vitro neuroprotective activity was assessed on human neuroblastoma cell line-IMR32 against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced cytotoxicity. The neuroprotective effect was determined by measuring the cell viability through tetrazolium dye MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) reducing assay and propidium iodide (PI) staining. Also the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity was assessed using dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFDA) assay by flowcytometer.

RESULTS

The results of the study demonstrated that H. rhamnoides extract possesses potential free radical scavenging activity. The IC50 value for DPPH and OH radical scavenging assay was 70.92 μg/ml and 0.463 mg/ml, also the extract was also found to have considerable level of lipid peroxidation activity. The neuroprotective effect of H. rhamnoides was confirmed by its cell viability enhancing capacity against hydrogen peroxide induced cell cytotoxicity. The extract acted on IMR32 cells in a dose dependent manner as observed through PI and MTT assays. The percentage intracellular ROS activity was reduced by 60-70% in treated cells compared to H2O2 control.

CONCLUSION

Thus the outcome of the study suggests that H. rhamnoides acts as a neuroprotectant against oxidative stress induced neurodegeneration.

Neuroprotective effects of alkaloids from Piper longum in a MPTP-induced mouse model of Parkinson's disease

CONTEXT

Alkaloids of Piper longum L. (Piperaceae) (PLA) include piperine and piperlonguminine. Piper longum and piperine have multiple biological properties including antioxidant activity.

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigated the neuroprotective effects of PLA in a MPTP-induced mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PLA was prepared by extracting the dry seed of P. longum using 85% ethanol. Adult male C57BL/6 mice were divided into eight groups of 12 rats each. Experimental and control groups received an equivalent volume of saline, 0.5% CMC-Na, and 0.1% Tween 80, treated groups received oral PLA (30, 60, and 120 mg/kg), other groups treated with piperine (60 mg/kg) or Madopar (50 mg/kg). The PLA prevention group (PLA-Pr) administrated PLA (120 mg/kg) for 1 week before MPTP challenged. Except for the PLA-Pr group, others were treated for seven consecutive weeks. Parkinson's disease was induced by injecting MPTP intraperitoneally (25 mg/kg) twice weekly for five consecutive weeks. Dopaminerigic (DA) neurons and their metabolism were detected by UFLC-MS/MS. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunohistochemistry assay and Western blotting were performed. The antioxidant enzymatic levels were determined by kit-based assays.

RESULTS

The LD50 value of PLA was determined at 1509 mg/kg of body weight. PLA (60 mg/kg) can significantly increase total movement time and distance (p < 0.05), increase levels of DA (p < 0.05) and DOPAC (p <  .05), increase glutathione (GSH) level and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity (p < 0.05), and decrease the lipid peroxidation of malondiadehycle (MDA) (p < 0.05) in PLA-treated groups as compared with the control group.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that PLA possesses neuroprotective effects and has ameliorative properties in dopaminergic neurons.

Antioxidant activity, antitumor effect, and antiaging property of proanthocyanidins extracted from Kunlun Chrysanthemum flowers

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity, antitumor effect, and antiaging property of proanthocyanidins from Kunlun Chrysanthemum flowers (PKCF) grown in Xinjiang. In vitro antioxidant experiments results showed that the total antioxidant activity and the scavenging capacity of hydroxyl radicals (^•OH) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH^•) radicals increased in a concentration-dependent manner and were stronger than those of vitamin C. To investigate the antioxidant activity of PKCF in vivo, we used serum, liver, and kidney from mouse for the measurement of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC). Results indicated that PKCF had antioxidative effect in vivo which significantly improved the activity of SOD and T-AOC and decreased MDA content. To investigate the antitumor activity of PKCF, we used H22 cells, HeLa cells, and Eca-109 cells with Vero cells as control. Inhibition ratio and IC₅₀ values were measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; PKCF showed great inhibitory activity on H22 cells and HeLa cells. We also used fruit flies as a model for analyzing the anti-aging property of PKCF. Results showed that PKCF has antiaging effect on Drosophila. Results of the present study demonstrated that PKCF could be a promising agent that may find applications in health care, medicine, and cosmetics.

Quantitative Analysis Coupled with Toxic Evaluation to Investigate the Influence of Sulfur-Fumigation on the Quality of Chrysanthemum morifolium

In the present study, quantitative analysis coupled with toxic evaluation was applied to investigate the influence of sulfur-fumigation on the quality of Chrysanthemum morifolium. The results showed that the average contents of six flavonoids (cynaroside, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, luteolin, apigenin, and diosmetin) in sulfur-fumigated C. morifolium samples decreased by about 6.2%, 3.5%, 22.0%, 33.3%, 26.0%, and 36.9%, respectively, while the average contents of two organic acids (chlorogenic acid and isochlorogenic acid A) in sulfur-fumigated C. morifolium samples increased by about 16.8% and 7.6%, respectively. Furthermore, high dosage sulfur-fumigated C. morifolium could induce hydropic degeneration in epithelial cells of the renal tubule and interstitial edema. This indicates that sulfur-fumigated C. morifolium may lead to renal toxicity.

Pinocembrin protects SH-SY5Y cells against MPP+-induced neurotoxicity through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway

Pinocembrin (PB), the most abundant flavonoid in propolis, has been proven to have neuroprotective property against neurotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. Our recent study demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of PB against Aβ25-35-induced SH-SY5Y neurotoxicity. However, the mechanism as how PB can induce neuroprotection is not known. In the present study, we demonstrate here that PB abrogates the effects of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) which mimics Parkinson's disease (PD) with elevation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and apoptotic death. We found that pretreatment of SH-SY5Y cells with PB significantly reduced the MPP(+)-induced loss of cell viability, the generation of intracellular ROS, apoptotic rate, and the cleavage of caspase-3. PB strikingly inhibited MPP(+)-induced mitochondrial dysfunctions, including lowered membrane potential, decreased Bcl-2/Bax ratio, and the release of cytochrome c. Overall, these results suggest that PB is intimately involved in inhibiting MPP(+)-induced loss of mitochondrial function and induction of apoptosis that contributes toward neuronal survival. These data indicated that PB might provide a valuable therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PD.

Neurite Outgrowth in PC12 Cells Stimulated by Components from Dendranthema × grandiflorum cv. "Mottenohoka" Is Enhanced by Suppressing Phosphorylation of p38MAPK

Components from Dendranthema × grandiflorum cv. "Mottenohoka" that promote neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells were identified and the mechanism of neurite outgrowth stimulated by isolated components was studied. Components that promoted the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2) of PC12 cells were isolated. From various structural analyses, the active components were identified as acacetin and luteolin. The effects of acacetin or luteolin on PC12 cells were evaluated by electro-blotting and immunostaining. Slight neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells was observed within 2 days of culture after stimulation by luteolin or acacetin. However, NGF-stimulation induced remarkable neurite outgrowth in comparison. Neurite outgrowth by luteolin or acacetin was significantly enhanced by pretreatment with SB203580 (a p38MAPK inhibitor). The results of this study into the phosphorylation of ERK 1/2 and p38MAPK by flavonoids suggest that the inhibition of p38MAPK phosphorylation may effectively enhance neurite outgrowth.

Increased exposure of vitamin A by Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat extract in rat was not via induction of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP2B1

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat (CM) extract on the pharmacokinetics of retinol and activities of cytochrome P450s (CYP450s) related to retinoid metabolism. Rats were treated with CM extract for 15 d. Plasma concentrations of retinol were measured following oral administration of retinol (45 mg/kg). Basal levels of retinol and retinoic acid in serum and liver were also measured. 7-Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity, phenacetin-O-deethylase activity, and 7-pentoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activities were used to assay the activities of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP2B1 in hepatic microsomes of rats, respectively. Protein expressions of the 3 CYP450s were measured by western blot. Our studies demonstrated that CM extract dose-dependently increased basal level of retinol in serum. In pharmacokinetic experiment, CM extract dose-dependently increased plasma concentrations of retinol after oral administration of retinol to rats treated with CM extract. But activities and expressions of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP2B1 in hepatic microsomes of rats were also induced by CM extract.

Anti-Parkinsonian drug discovery from herbal medicines: what have we got from neurotoxic models?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herbal medicines are used to treat Parkinson's disease (PD) in ancient medical systems in Asian countries such as India, China, Japan and Korea based on their own anecdotal or experience-based theories.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To systematically summarize and analyze the anti-Parkinsonian activities of herbal preparations (including active compounds, herbal extracts and formulations) investigated in the neurotoxic models of PD and provide future references for basic and clinical investigations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the herbal materials tested on in vitro and in vivo neurotoxic models of PD were retrieved from PubMed database by using pre-set searching strings. The relevant compounds and herbal extracts with anti-Parkinsonian activities were included and analyzed according to their chemical classifications or biological activities.

RESULTS

A total of 51 herbal medicines were analyzed. A diversity of compounds isolated from herbal materials were reported to be effective on neurotoxic models of PD by modulating multiple key events or signaling pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of PD. The main structure types of these compounds belong to catechols, stilbenoids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids and lignans, phenylethanoid glycosides and terpenes. Although some herbal extracts and formulations have shown positive results on PD animal models, the relative compounds accounting for the effects and the underlying mechanisms remain to be further investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

Herbal medicines can be an alternative and valuable source for anti-Parkinsonian drug discovery. Compounds classified into stilbenoids, flavonoids, catechols and terpenes may be the most promising candidates for further investigation. Some well-studies compounds such as baicalein, puerarin, resveratrol, curcumin and ginsenosides deserve further consideration in clinical trials. In-depth experimental studies are still needed to evaluate the efficacy of herbal extracts and formulations in PD models.

Protection against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+)-induced apoptosis by water extract of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) in SH-SY5Y cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The present study investigates the protective effects of water extract of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) against 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP(+))-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells and explores the underlying mechanisms. The approach may be used for screening therapeutic agents for degenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells were used to analyze the protective effects of water extract of ginseng (WEG) against multiple parameters such as MPP(+)-induced viability, oxidative injury, expression of Bax, Bcl-2, cytochrome c and cleaved caspase-3.

RESULTS

WEG exerted inhibitory effect on cell death, overproduction of ROS, elevated Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, release of cytochrome c and activation of caspase-3 expression in MPP(+)-treated SH-SY5Y cells.

CONCLUSIONS

WEG exhibited significant protective effects against MPP(+)-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells possibly through the suppression of ROS generation and the inhibition of mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway.