Astragalus polysaccharides regulate T cell-mediated immunity via CD11c(high)CD45RB(low) DCs in vitro

Preparation, characteristic, biological activities, and application of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus: a review

OBJECTIVES

This review highlights the current knowledge of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus, including the extraction, purification, structure, structure modification , biological activities and application, which will hopefully provide reference for further research and development of polysaccharide from Lilii Bulbus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature searches were conducted on the following databases: Pubmed, ACS website, Elsevier, Google Scholar, Web of Science and CNKI database. Keywords such as "Lilii Bulbus", "polysaccharide", "preparation", "biological activities" and "application" were used to search relevant journals and contents, and some irrelevant contents were excluded.

RESULTS

In general, the study of Lilium Bulbus polysaccharide extraction and purification, structure characterization and biological activity has made substantial progress, these findings highlight the lilium brownii polysaccharide enormous potential in biomedical applications, of lilium brownii polysaccharide laid a solid foundation for further research.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

However, it should be noted that the relevant mechanism of the effective effect of lily bulb polysaccharide still needs to be worked on by researchers. These findings highlight the great potential of lily polysaccharides in biomedical applications, and lay a solid foundation for further research on lily polysaccharides.

Gelatin-based biomaterials and gelatin as an additive for chronic wound repair

Disturbing or disrupting the regular healing process of a skin wound may result in its progression to a chronic state. Chronic wounds often lead to increased infection because of their long healing time, malnutrition, and insufficient oxygen flow, subsequently affecting wound progression. Gelatin-the main structure of natural collagen-is widely used in biomedical fields because of its low cost, wide availability, biocompatibility, and degradability. However, gelatin may exhibit diverse tailored physical properties and poor antibacterial activity. Research on gelatin-based biomaterials has identified the challenges of improving gelatin's poor antibacterial properties and low mechanical properties. In chronic wounds, gelatin-based biomaterials can promote wound hemostasis, enhance peri-wound antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, and promote vascular and epithelial cell regeneration. In this article, we first introduce the natural process of wound healing. Second, we present the role of gelatin-based biomaterials and gelatin as an additive in wound healing. Finally, we present the future implications of gelatin-based biomaterials.

Investigating the immune mechanism of natural products in the treatment of lung cancer

With the deepening of people's understanding of lung cancer, the research of lung cancer immunotherapy has gradually become the focus of attention. As we all know, the treatment of many diseases relies on the rich sources, complex and varied compositions and wide range of unique biological properties of natural products. Studies have shown that natural products can exert anticancer effects by inducing tumor cell death, inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, and enhancing tumor cell autophagy. More notably, natural products can adjust and strengthen the body's immune response, which includes enhancing the function of NK cells and promoting the differentiation and proliferation of T lymphocytes. In addition, these natural products may enhance their anticancer effects by affecting inhibitory factors in the immune system, hormone levels, enzymes involved in biotransformation, and modulating other factors in the tumor microenvironment. The importance of natural products in lung cancer immunotherapy should not be underestimated. However, the specific links and correlations between natural products and lung cancer immunity are not clear enough, and further studies are urgently needed to clarify the relationship between the two. In this paper, we will focus on the correlation between natural products and lung cancer immune responses, with a view to providing new research perspectives for immunotherapy of lung cancer.

Synergist for antitumor therapy: Astragalus polysaccharides acting on immune microenvironment

Various new treatments are emerging constantly in anti-tumor therapies, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. However, the efficacy is still not satisfactory. Astragalus polysaccharide is an important bioactive component derived from the dry root of Radix astragali. Studies found that astragalus polysaccharides have gained great significance in increasing the sensitivity of anti-tumor treatment, reducing the side effects of anti-tumor treatment, reversing the drug resistance of anti-tumor drugs, etc. In this review, we focused on the role of astragalus polysaccharides in tumor immune microenvironment. We reviewed the immunomodulatory effect of astragalus polysaccharides on macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes. We found that astragalus polysaccharides can promote the activities of macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes and induce the expression of a variety of cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, we summarized the clinical applications of astragalus polysaccharides in patients with digestive tract tumors. We summarized the effective mechanism of astragalus polysaccharides on digestive tract tumors, including apoptosis induction, proliferation inhibition, immunoactivity regulation, enhancement of the anticancer effect and chemosensitivity. Therefore, in view of the multiple functions of astragalus polysaccharides in tumor immune microenvironment and its clinical efficacy, the combination of astragalus polysaccharides with antitumor therapy such as immunotherapy may provide new sparks to the bottleneck of current treatment methods.

Astragalus polysaccharides driven stretchable nanofibrous membrane wound dressing for joint wound healing

Joint wound dressings are currently significantly limited in their clinical applications due to their inferior mechanical properties and single therapeutic effect. Therefore, it is imperative to develop a versatile joint wound dressing that integrates adequate stretchability, desirable biocompatibility, and multiple biological effects into one system. We implemented the electrospinning technique in this study to fabricate a novel nanofibrous membrane (NFM) composed of gelatin (GEL) and astragalus polysaccharides (APS), termed GEL/APS NFM. The selection of GEL and APS confers excellent biocompatibility to GEL/APS NFM. Furthermore, the optimally proportioned GEL/APS NFM exhibits satisfactory stretchability and desirable wound healing efficiency. Furthermore, released APS can exert anti-inflammatory, procollagen deposition, and proangiogenic effects to accelerate epithelial tissue, enhancing joint wound healing. In summary, GEL/APS NFM offers a convenient and effective approach to promoting rapid joint wound healing, providing a novel approach to joint wound care.

Biosynthesis and Pharmacological Activities of Flavonoids, Triterpene Saponins and Polysaccharides Derived from Astragalus membranaceus

Astragalus membranaceus (A. membranaceus), a well-known traditional herbal medicine, has been widely used in ailments for more than 2000 years. The main bioactive compounds including flavonoids, triterpene saponins and polysaccharides obtained from A. membranaceus have shown a wide range of biological activities and pharmacological effects. These bioactive compounds have a significant role in protecting the liver, immunomodulation, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, antioxidant and anti-cardiovascular activities. The flavonoids are initially synthesized through the phenylpropanoid pathway, followed by catalysis with corresponding enzymes, while the triterpenoid saponins, especially astragalosides, are synthesized through the universal upstream pathways of mevalonate (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP), and the downstream pathway of triterpenoid skeleton formation and modification. Moreover, the Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) possesses multiple pharmacological activities. In this review, we comprehensively discussed the biosynthesis pathway of flavonoids and triterpenoid saponins, and the structural features of polysaccharides in A. membranaceus. We further systematically summarized the pharmacological effects of bioactive ingredients in A. membranaceus, which laid the foundation for the development of clinical candidate agents. Finally, we proposed potential strategies of heterologous biosynthesis to improve the industrialized production and sustainable supply of natural products with pharmacological activities from A. membranaceus, thereby providing an important guide for their future development trend.

Fufang shenhua tablet, astragali radix and its active component astragaloside IV: Research progress on anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory mechanisms in the kidney

Background: Given the limited treatment options available for kidney disease, a significant number of patients turn to alternative therapies, including traditional Chinese medicine. Among these therapies, the Fufang Shenhua tablet (SHT) has garnered attention for its effectiveness in addressing the most common deficiency of Qi and Yin in chronic glomerulonephritis. Notably, the sovereign drug of SHT is Astragali Radix (AR), with the most abundant and effective component being Astragaloside IV (AS-IV). AS-IV has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, and it is extensively used in treating kidney diseases. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying its action are numerous and intricate, and a comprehensive understanding is yet to be achieved.

Aim of the review: Thus, we have thoroughly examined the existing research and outlined the advancements made in investigating the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory mechanisms of SHT, AR and its active component AS-IV, in relation to kidney health. This serves as a dependable foundation for conducting more comprehensive investigations, evaluating efficacy, and making further improvements in the future.

Materials and methods: We conducted a comprehensive literature search utilizing multiple globally recognized databases, including Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Wiley, ACS, Springer, and CNKI. The search keywords used in this study were “Fufang Shenhua tablet,” “Astragali Radix,” “Astragaloside IV,” and “Anti-inflammatory” or “Immunity.”

Results: The mechanism of inflammation inhibition by SHT, AR and its active component AS-IV is mainly related to the signaling pathways such as NF-κB, TLRs, PI3K/AKT, Wnt/β-catenin, and JAK-STAT. Immunomodulation exerts not only activating, stimulating, and regulating effects on macrophages and dendritic cells, but also on immune organs, T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and a myriad of cytokines. Moreover, the SHT, AR and its active component AS-IV also demonstrate regulatory effects on renal cells, including glomerular mesangial cells, tubular epithelial cells, and podocytes.

Conclusion: To summarize, SHT, AR and its active component AS-IV, exhibit notable therapeutic effects in kidney-related ailments, and their molecular mechanisms for anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects have been extensively explored. However, further standard clinical trials are necessary to evaluate their safety and efficacy in the adjunctive treatment of kidney-related diseases. Moreover, in-depth studies of unverified chemical components and regulatory mechanisms in SHT are required. It is our belief that with continued research, SHT, AR and its active component AS-IV are poised to pave the way for enhancing therapeutic outcomes in kidney-related ailments.

Astragalus Polysaccharide Promotes Doxorubicin-Induced Apoptosis by Reducing O-GlcNAcylation in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The toxicity and side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs remain a crucial obstacle to the clinical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Identifying combination therapy from Chinese herbs to enhance the sensitivity of tumors to chemotherapeutic drugs is of particular interest. Astragalus polysaccharide (APS), one of the natural active components in Astragalus membranaceus, has been reported to exhibit anti-tumor properties in diverse cancer cell lines. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of APS on Doxorubicin (Dox)-induced apoptosis in HCC and the underlying mechanism. The results showed that APS dose-dependently promoted Dox-induced apoptosis and enhanced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Additionally, APS decreased the mRNA level and protein stability of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT), and increased the O-GlcNAcase (OGA) expression. Furthermore, OGT lentiviral transfection or PugNAc (OGA inhibitor) treatment reversed the ER stress and apoptosis induced by the combination of Dox and APS. A xenograft tumor mouse model confirmed that the combination of APS and Dox showed an advantage in inhibiting tumor growth in vivo. These findings suggested that APS promoted Dox-induced apoptosis in HCC cells through reducing the O-GlcNAcylation, which led to the exacerbation of ER stress and activation of apoptotic pathways.

Inhibition of A1 Astrocytes and Activation of A2 Astrocytes for the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious injury to the central nervous system that causes significant physical and psychological trauma to the patient. SCI includes primary spinal cord injuries and secondary spinal cord injuries. The secondary injury refers to the pathological process or reaction after the primary injury. Although SCI has always been thought to be an incurable injury, the human nerve has the ability to repair itself after an injury. However, the reparability is limited because glial scar formation impedes functional recovery. There is a type of astrocyte that can differentiate into two forms of reactive astrocytes known as 'A1' and 'A2' astrocytes. A1 astrocytes release cytotoxic chemicals that cause neurons and oligodendrocytes to die and perform a harmful role. A2 astrocytes can produce neurotrophic factors and act as neuroprotectors. This article discusses ways to block A1 astrocytes while stimulating A2 astrocytes to formulate a new treatment for spinal cord injury.

Strong Synergic Growth Inhibition and Death Induction of Cancer Cells by Astragalus membranaceus and Vaccaria hispanica Extract

We present here a new, classification-based screening method for anti-cancer botanical combinations. Using this method, we discovered that the combination of Astragalus membranaceus and Vaccaria hispanica (AV) has strong synergic anti-proliferative and killing effects on cancer cells. We showed that AV induces the hyper activation of proliferation and survival pathways (Akt and ERK1/2) and strongly downregulates the cell cycle control proteins p21 and p27. Moreover, FACS analyses revealed that AV induces accumulation of cells in G2/M phase, supported by accumulation of cyclin A. Taken together, our results suggest that AV interferes with the cell cycle in cancer cells, leading to accumulation in G2/M and apoptosis. Further studies are needed to validate the generalizability of the anti-cancer effect of the AV combination, to fully understand its mechanism of action and to evaluate its potential as a new anti-cancer treatment.

A case series report on successful management of patients with COVID-19-associated lymphopenia and potential application of PG2

Background

Lymphopenia and the resultant high neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) are hallmark signs of severe COVID-19, and effective treatment remains unavailable. We retrospectively reviewed the outcomes of COVID-19 in a cohort of 26 patients admitted to Chung Shan Medical University Hospital (Taichung City, Taiwan). Twenty-five of the 26 patients recovered, including 9 patients with mild/moderate illness and 16 patients with severe/critical illness recovered. One patient died after refusing treatment.

Case presentation

We report the cases of four patients with high NLRs and marked lymphopenia, despite receiving standard care. A novel injectable botanical drug, PG2, containing Astragalus polysaccharides, was administered to them as an immune modulator. The decrease in the NLR in these four patients was faster than that of other patients in the cohort (0.80 vs. 0.34 per day).

Conclusion

All patients recovered from severe COVID-19 showed decreased NLR and normalized lymphocyte counts before discharge. Administration of PG2 may be of benefit to patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 and lymphopenia.

Antitumor effects of Chinese herbal medicine compounds and their nano-formulations on regulating the immune system microenvironment

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), including herbal medicine, acupuncture and meditation, has a wide range of applications in China. In recent years, herbal compounding and active ingredients have been used to control tumor growth, reduce suffering, improve quality of life, and prolong the life span of cancer patients. To reduce side effects, herbal medicine can be used in conjunction with radiotherapy and chemotherapy or can be used as an adjuvant to strengthen the immune effect of anticancer vaccines. In particular, in the immunosuppressed tumor microenvironment, herbal medicine can have antitumor effects by stimulating the immune response. This paper reviews the advances in research on antitumor immunomodulation in Chinese herbal medicine, including the regulation of the innate immune system, which includes macrophages, MDSCs, and natural killer cells, and the adaptive immune system, which includes CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and regulatory T cells (Tregs), to influence tumor-associated inflammation. In addition, a combination of active ingredients of herbal medicine and modern nanotechnology alter the tumor immune microenvironment. In recent years, immunological antitumor therapy in TCM has been applied on a reasonably large scale both nationally and internationally, and there is potential for further clinical expansion. Investigation of immune modulation mechanisms in Chinese herbal medicine will provide novel perspectives of how herbal medicine controls tumor growth and metastasis, which will contribute to the evolution of tumor research.

Chinese herbal medicine combined with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy for advanced gastric cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of contributions of specific medicinal materials to tumor response

Introduction: The incidence and mortality of gastric cancer ranks among the highest, and the 5-year survival rate of advanced gastric cancer (AGC) is less than 10%. Currently, chemotherapy is the main treatment for AGC, and oxaliplatin is an important part of the commonly used chemotherapy regimen for AGC. A large number of RCTs have shown that Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) combined with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy can improve objective response rate (ORR) and disease control rate (DCR), reduce the toxic and side effects of chemotherapy. There is currently a lack of systematic evaluation of the evidence to account for the efficacy and safety of CHM combined with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in AGC. Therefore, we carried out this study and conducted the sensitivity analysis on the herbal composition to explore the potential anti-tumor efficacy.

Methods: Databases of PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, Web of Science, the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, the China National Knowledge Infrastructure, the Wanfang database, and the Chinese Scientific Journals Database were searched from their inception to April 2022. RCTs evaluating the efficacy of CHM combined with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy on AGC were included. Stata 16 was used for data synthesis, RoB 2 for quality evaluation of included RCTs, and GRADE for quality of synthesized evidence. Additional sensitivity analysis was performed to explore the potential anti-tumor effects of single herbs and combination of herbs.

Results: Forty trials involving 3,029 participants were included. Most included RCTs were assessed as “Some concerns” of risk of bias. Meta-analyses showed that compare to oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy alone, that CHM combined with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy could increase the objective response rate (ORR) by 35% [risk ratio (RR) = 1.35, 95% confidence intervals (CI) (1.25, 1.45)], and disease control rate (DCR) by 12% [RR = 1.12, 95% CI (1.08, 1.16)]. Subgroup analysis showed that compare to SOX, FOLFOX, and XELOX regimens alone, CHM plus SOX, CHM plus FOLFOX, and CHM plus XELOX could significantly increase the ORR and DCR. Sensitivity analysis identified seven herbs of Astragalus, Liquorice, Poria, Largehead Atractylodes, Chinese Angelica, Codonopsis, and Tangerine Peel with potentials to improve tumor response of oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in AGC.

Conclusion: Synthesized evidence showed moderate certainty that CHM plus oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy may promote improvement in tumor response in AGC. CHM treatment is safe for AGC. Due to the poor quality of included RCTs and small samplesizes, the quality of synthesized evidence was not high. Specific combinations of herbs appeared to produce higher contributions to ORR than the herb individually. Each of this seven above mentioned herbs has been shown in experimental studies to potentially contribute to the improvement of tumor response. To support this conclusion, these seven herbs are worthy of further clinical research.

Systematic Review Registration: [http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=262595], identifier [CRD42022262595].

Astragalus polysaccharide: a review of its immunomodulatory effect

The Astragalus polysaccharide is an important bioactive component derived from the dry root of Astragalus membranaceus. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the research progress on the immunomodulatory effect of Astragalus polysaccharide and provide valuable reference information. We review the immunomodulatory effect of Astragalus polysaccharide on central and peripheral immune organs, including bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and mucosal tissues. Furthermore, the immunomodulatory effect of Astragalus polysaccharide on a variety of immune cells is summarized. Studies have shown that Astragalus polysaccharide can promote the activities of macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes and microglia and induce the expression of a variety of cytokines and chemokines. The immunomodulatory effect of Astragalus polysaccharide makes it promising for the treatment of many diseases, including cancer, infection, type 1 diabetes, asthma, and autoimmune disease. Among them, the anticancer effect is the most prominent. In short, Astragalus polysaccharide is a valuable immunomodulatory medicine, but further high-quality studies are warranted to corroborate its clinical efficacy.

Antiviral Compounds Based on Natural ASTRAGALUS POLYSACCHARIDE (APS): Researches and Foresight in the Strategies for Combating SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Today, finding natural polymers with desirable properties for use in various industries is one of the critical axes of research in the world. Polysaccharides are a group of natural polymers that have various applications in the pharmaceutical industry. The attachment of monosaccharides forms polysaccharides through glycosidic bonds that are widely found in various sources, including plants. Genus Astragalus belongs to the Fabaceae family. Plants belonging to this genus have different polysaccharides. Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) have attracted a great deal of attention among natural polymers because they are non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible. Currently, APS has great drug potential for curing or treating various diseases. Due to the different biological activities of polysaccharides, including Astragalus, this study has investigated the chemical structure of APS, research report on antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and stimulation of cytokine secretion by these polysaccharides. Also, in this study, the pharmaceutical approaches of APS compounds, as a natural, new and inexpensive source, have been discussed as suitable candidates for use in pharmaceutical formulations and preparation of new drugs to control COVID-19 infection.

Microglia Polarization from M1 toward M2 Phenotype Is Promoted by Astragalus Polysaccharides Mediated through Inhibition of miR-155 in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Activated microglia is considered to be major mediators of the neuroinflammatory environment in demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). Activated microglia are mainly polarized into M1 type, which plays a role in promoting inflammation and demyelinating. However, the proportion of microglia polarized into M2 type is relatively low, which cannot fully play the role of anti-inflammatory and resistance to demyelinating. Our previous study found that Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) has an immunomodulatory effect and can inhibit neuroinflammation and demyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which is a classic animal model of CNS demyelinating disease. In this study, we found that APS was effective in treating EAE mice. It restored microglia balance by inhibiting the polarization of microglia to M1-like phenotype and promoting the polarization of microglia to M2-like phenotype in vivo and in vitro. miR-155 is a key factor in regulating microglia polarization. We found that APS could inhibit the expression level of miR-155 in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we performed transfection overexpression and blocking experiments. The results showed that miR-155 mediated the polarization of microglia M1/M2 phenotype, while the selective inhibitor of miR-155 attenuated the inhibition of APS on microglia M1 phenotype and eliminated the promotion of APS on microglia M2 phenotype. Microglia can secrete IL-1α, TNF-α, and C1q after polarizing into M1 type and induce the activation of A1 neurotoxic astrocytes, further aggravating neuroinflammation and demyelination. APS reduced the secretion of IL-1α, TNF-α, and C1q by activated microglia, thus inhibited the formation of A1 neurotoxic astrocytes. In summary, our study suggests that APS regulates the polarization of microglia from M1 to M2 phenotype by inhibiting the miR-155, reduces the secretion of inflammatory factors, and inhibits the activation of neurotoxic astrocytes, thus effectively treating EAE.

Response of Growth Performance, Blood Biochemistry Indices, and Rumen Bacterial Diversity in Lambs to Diets Containing Supplemental Probiotics and Chinese Medicine Polysaccharides

This study aims to investigate the effects of probiotics and Chinese medicine polysaccharides (CMPs) on growth performance, blood indices, rumen fermentation, and bacteria composition in lambs. Forty female lambs were randomly divided into four groups as follows: control, probiotics, CMP, and compound (probiotics + CMP) groups. The results showed that probiotics treatment increased the concentrations of blood glucose (GLU) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) and enhanced rumen microbial protein contents but declined the value of pH in rumen fluid compared with the control (P < 0.05). Furthermore, supplementation with CMP enhanced the average daily gain (ADG) and the contents of IgA, IgG, and IgM in the serum but decreased the F:G ratio compared with the control (P < 0.05). Besides, both CMP and compound (probiotics + CMP) treatments decreased the ratio of acetic acid and propionic acid compared with the control (P < 0.05). High-throughput sequencing data showed that at the genus level, the relative abundance of Veillonellaceae_UCG-001 in the probiotics group was increased, the relative abundance of Succiniclasticum and norank_f__Muribaculaceae in the CMP group were enhanced, and the relative abundance of Ruminococcaceae_UCG-002 in the compound group was raised compared with the control (P < 0.05). In summary, supplementation with probiotics can promote rumen protein fermentation but decrease the diversity of bacteria in rumen fluid; however, CMP treatment increased the relative abundance of Fibrobacteria, changed rumen microbial fermentation mode, increased the immune function, and ultimately improved the growth performance.

Astragalus-mediated stimulation on antigen-presenting cells could result in higher IL-21 production from CXCR5+ Tfh-like cells and better IL-21-mediated effector functions

T cells in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) patients display multiple features of impairment and exhaustion. Here, we hypothesize that Astragalus membranaceus, a herbal medicine commonly used to accompany chemotherapy, might have adjuvating effects on T cells from RCC patients. To investigate this, circulating T cells from healthy individuals and RCC patients were cocultured ex vivo with aqueous extract from Astragalus. Functional characteristics of T cells in the absence and presence of Astragalus extract were then compared. We first identified a downregulation of IL-21 expression in RCC patients in association with a functional dysregulation of CXCR5⁺ Tfh-like cells. Astragalus extract could significantly increase IL-21 expression in a dose-dependent manner. This Astragalus-mediated effect depended on the presence of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), as purified CXCR5⁺ Tfh-like cells presented little IL-21 upregulation following Astragalus stimulation. APCs primed by Astragalus extract also promoted IL-21 expression from Tfh-like cells. Interestingly, Astragalus-stimulated Tfh-like cells presented enhanced helper function and resulted in higher humoral responses and better CD8 T cell survival. This effect was dependent on the presence of IL-21. Overall, these data indicated that Astragalus could enhance IL-21 production and effector function from CXCR5⁺ Tfh-like cells in a manner that depended on the presence of APCs.

The regulatory role of dietary factors in skeletal muscle development, regeneration and function

Skeletal muscle plays a crucial role in motor function, respiration, and whole-body energy homeostasis. How to regulate the development and function of skeletal muscle has become a hot research topic for improving lifestyle and extending life span. Numerous transcription factors and nutritional factors have been clarified are closely associated with the regulation of skeletal muscle development, regeneration and function. In this article, the roles of different dietary factors including green tea, quercetin, curcumin (CUR), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and resveratrol (RES) in regulating skeletal muscle development, muscle mass, muscle function, and muscle recovery have been summarized and discussed. We also reviewed the potential regulatory molecular mechanism of these factors. Based on the current findings, dietary factors may be used as a potential therapeutic agent to treat skeletal muscle dysfunction as well as its related diseases.

Astragali Radix (Huangqi): A promising edible immunomodulatory herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Astragali Radix (AR, Huangqi in Chinese), the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao or A. membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge., possesses diverse therapeutic effects against fatigue, dyspepsia, diarrhea, heart diseases, hepatitis, and anemia. In recent years, increasing evidence has indicated the multiple immunomodulatory activities of AR in preclinical and clinical studies.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review attempts to elaborate the immunomodulatory effects of AR and its potential application in the treatment of immune related diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search AR was carried out using multiple internationally recognized databases (including Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Wiley, ACS, Springer, Taylor & Francis, and CNKI).

RESULTS

The immunomodulatory effects of AR are closely attributed to its active constituents such as polysaccharides, saponins, and flavonoids. We also demonstrate that AR can be used as a potential therapeutic intervention for immune related diseases through regulating immune organs, mucosal immune, and immune system (innate immunity and acquired immunity).

CONCLUSION

AR promotes the development of immune organs, enhances mucosal immune function, increases the quantity and phagocytic capacity of innate immunity, promotes the maturation and differentiation of acquired immunity cells, and improves the expression of antibodies in acquired immunity. We believe that AR has a broad research space in the adjuvant treatment of immune related diseases, which could be a breakthrough point to improve the application value of AR.

Advances in research on the effects of natural drugs with immune-promoting effects on immune function

Immune-enhanced natural medicines have gradually formed unique functions and usages through long-term medical practice, which contained rich immunological ideas and contents. The immune-enhancing natural medicine has a wide range of pharmacological effects in anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-viral, and immunity enhancement. In recent years, great progress has been made in the study of immune-enhanced natural drugs. In this article, the main active ingredients of some natural drugs with immune-enhancing function are reviewed, which can enhance immunity by regulating the level of some cytokines and affecting the function of non-specific immunity and specific immunity. The experimental research provides the basis and prospects for the research and development of immune-enhanced natural drugs in the future, providing new ideas for immunotherapy.

Anticancer activities of phytoconstituents and their liposomal targeting strategies against tumor cells and the microenvironment

Various bioactive ingredients have been extracted from Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that affect tumor progression and metastasis. To further understand the mechanisms of CHMs in cancer therapy, this article summarizes the effects of five categories of CHMs and their active ingredients on tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. Despite their treatment potential, the undesirable physicochemical properties (poor permeability, instability, high hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, toxicity) and unwanted pharmacokinetic profiles (short half-life in blood and low bioavailability) restrict clinical studies of CHMs. Therefore, development of liposomes through relevant surface modifying techniques to achieve targeted CHM delivery for cancer cells, i.e., extracellular and intracellular targets and targets in tumor microenvironment or vasculature, have been reviewed. Current challenges of liposomal targeting of these phytoconstituents and future perspective of CHM applications are discussed to provide an informative reference for interested readers.

Astragalus Polysaccharide Promotes Adriamycin-Induced Apoptosis in Gastric Cancer Cells

Purpose

Astragalus polysaccharide (APS), a common Chinese herbal compound extracted from Astragalus membranaceus, has been proposed to increase the tumour response of and stabilize chemotherapy drugs while reducing their toxicity. Here, we examined the effects of APS on apoptosis in gastric cancer (GC) cells in the presence or absence of adriamycin (0.1 µg/mL).

Methods

GC cells cultured in the presence or absence of adriamycin (0.1 µg/mL) were administered APS (50–200 µg/mL) for 24–72 h and subjected to an MTT assay to examine cell viability. Active caspase-3 expression and DNA fragmentation were assessed to evaluate apoptosis, and real-time PCR was used to analyse the expression levels of multidrug resistance (MDR1) genes and tumour suppressor genes. Western blot analysis was applied to detect cleaved caspase-3 and phosphorylated AMPK (p-AMPK).

Results

Cellular viability was profoundly reduced by APS, and GC cell apoptosis was strongly increased by APS in a time- and dose-dependent manner; these changes may be linked to an increase in p-AMPK levels because the AMPK inhibitor compound C blocked the effects of APS. Similarly, adriamycin-induced decreases in cellular viability and apoptosis of GC cells were enhanced by APS administration. The expression of tumour suppressor genes (SEMA3F, P21^WAF1/CIP1, FBXW7), but not of MDR1, was increased by APS compared to the control, and p-AMPK levels were lower in adriamycin-resistant GC cells than in either adriamycin-sensitive GC cells or an immortalized human gastric epithelial cell line.

Conclusion

APS induces apoptosis independently and strengthens the proapoptotic effect of adriamycin on GC cells, suggesting that APS may act as a chemotherapeutic sensitizer.

A Review of the Pharmacological Action of Astragalus Polysaccharide

Astragalus membranaceus (A. membranaceus) is a type of traditional Chinese medicine with a long history of clinical application. It is used in the improvement and treatment of various diseases as medicine and food to invigorate the spleen and replenish qi. The main components of A. membranaceus are Astragalus polysaccharide (APS), flavonoids compounds, saponins compounds, alkaloids, etc. APS is the most important natural active component in A. membranaceus, and possesses multiple pharmacological properties. At present, APS possess the huge potential to develop a drug improving or treating different diseases. In this review, we reveal the potential approaches of pre-treating and preparation on APS as much as possible and the study on content of APS and its chemical composition including different monosaccharides. More importantly, this paper summarize pharmacological actions on immune regulation, such as enhancing the immune organ index, promoting the proliferation of immune cells, stimulating the release of cytokines, and affecting the secretion of immunoglobulin and conduction of immune signals; anti-aging; anti-tumor by enhancing immunity, inducing apoptosis of tumor cells and inhibiting the proliferation and transfer of tumor cells; antiviral effects; regulation of blood glucose such as type I diabetes mellitus, type II diabetes mellitus and diabetic complications; lipid-lowering; anti-fibrosis; antimicrobial activities and anti-radiation. It provided theoretical basis for the further research such as its structure and mechanism of action, and clinical application of APS.

Antitumor effects of immunity-enhancing traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been traditionally used to treat patients with cancers in China. It not only alleviates the symptoms of tumor patients and improves their quality of life, but also controls the size of tumors and prolongs the survival of tumor patients. While some herbs of TCM may exert therapeutic effects by directly targeting cancer cells or reducing side effects caused by antitumor drugs, others can control tumor growth and metastasis via enhancing antitumor immunity. In particular, TCM can exert antitumor effects by upregulating immune responses even in immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. For instance, it reduces the number of M2-type macrophages and Treg cells in the tumor tissue. Although extensive reviews on directly killing cancer cells by TCM have been conducted, a review of anticancer activity of TCM solely based on its immunity-enhancing capacity is unusual. This review will summarize research progress of antitumor TCM that regulates the immune system, including both innate immunity, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells and MDSCs, and adaptive immunity, including CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T lymphocytes, regulatory T cells (Tregs) and B cells. As cancer immunotherapy has recently achieved certain success, it is expected that the clinical applications of immunity-enhancing TCM or traditional medicine for treating various cancer patients will be expanded. Further studies on the mechanisms by which TCM regulates immunity will provide new insights into how TCM controls tumor growth and metastasis, and may help improve its therapeutic effects on various cancers in clinic.

Astragalus polysaccharides (PG2) Enhances the M1 Polarization of Macrophages, Functional Maturation of Dendritic Cells, and T Cell-Mediated Anticancer Immune Responses in Patients with Lung Cancer

Background: Recently, we demonstrated that Astragalus polysaccharide (PG2), the active ingredient in dried roots of astragalus membranaceus, ameliorates cancer symptom clusters and improves quality of life (QoL) in patients with metastatic disease by modulating inflammatory cascade against the background roles of inflammatory cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in tumor initiation, metastasis, and progression. Nevertheless, the role of PG2 in the modulation of anticancer immunogenicity and therapeutic response remains relatively underexplored and unclear. Purpose: The present study investigates how and to what extent PG2 modulates cellular and biochemical components of the inflammatory cascade and enhances anticancer immunity, as well as the therapeutic implication of these bio-events in patients with lung cancer. Methods and Results: Herein, we demonstrated that PG2 significantly increased the M1/M2 macrophage polarization ratio in non-small cell carcinoma (NSCLC) H441 and H1299 cells. This PG2-induced preferential pharmacologic up-regulation of tumoral M1 population in vitro positively correlated with the downregulation of tumor-promoting IL-6 and IL-10 expression in NSCLC cell-conditioned medium, with concomitant marked inhibition of cell proliferation, clonogenicity, and tumorsphere formation. Our ex vivo results, using clinical sample from our NSCLC cohort, demonstrated that PG2 also promoted the functional maturation of DCs with consequent enhancement of T cell-mediated anticancer immune responses. Consistent with the in vitro and ex vivo results, our in vivo studies showed that treatment with PG2 elicited significant time-dependent depletion of the tumor-associated M2 population, synergistically enhanced the anti-M2-based anticancer effect of cisplatin, and inhibited xenograft tumor growth in the NSCLC mice models. Moreover, in the presence of PG2, cisplatin-associated dyscrasia and weight-loss was markedly suppressed. Conclusion: These results do indicate a therapeutically-relevant role for PG2 in modulating the M1/M2 macrophage pool, facilitating DC maturation and synergistically enhancing the anticancer effect of conventional chemotherapeutic agent, cisplatin, thus laying the foundation for further exploration of the curative relevance of PG2 as surrogate immunotherapy and/or clinical feasibility of its use for maintenance therapy in patients with lung cancer.

Kangai Injection Combined with Platinum-based Chemotherapy for the Treatment of Stage III/IV Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Meta-analysis and Systematic Review of 35 Randomized Controlled Trials

Objective: In an effort to inform evidence-based guidelines for clinical practice, we performed a meta-analysis to systematically evaluate the safety and efficacy of Kangai injection (KAI) plus platinum-based chemotherapy for stage III/IV non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Methods: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing KAI plus platinum-based chemotherapy (experimental group) to chemotherapy alone (control group) were electronically retrieved from the Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMbase, Web of Science, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Chinese Biological Medicine (CBM) Database, Wanfang Database, and the VIP Database for Chinese Technical Periodicals. RCTs published from the date of inception to July 5, 2018, were included. All trials were assessed for methodological quality in accordance with the Cochrane Reviewer's Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Intervention. Meta-analysis was performed using RevMan5.3 Software and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) 2.0.

Results: The final analysis included 35 RCTs involving 2,618 patients. Our meta-analysis revealed that KAI combined with platinum-based chemotherapy was associated with significantly greater objective response rate (ORR) (RR=1.36, 95% CI: 1.25-1.49, P<0.00001) and disease control rate (DCR) (RR=1.14, 95% CI: 1.09-1.18, P<0.00001), improvements in quality of life (QOL) (RR=1.75, 95% CI: 1.59-1.93, P<0.00001), and decreases in the incidence of gastrointestinal reactions (RR=0.64, 95% CI: 0.54-0.77, P<0.00001), leukocytopenia (RR=0.54, 95% CI: 0.46-0.63, P<0.00001) and thrombocytopenia (RR=0.52, 95% CI: 0.36-0.76, P=0.0007) when compared with chemotherapy alone. In addition, combined treatment was associated with greater regulation of tumor immune function, as indicated by increases in the proportion of NK, CD₃⁺ , and CD₄⁺ cells (MD=2.27, 95% CI: 1.18-3.36, P<0.0001; MD=12.86, 95% CI: 11.64-14.08, P<0.00001; and MD=5.48, 95% CI: 2.68-8.28, P=0.0001) and decreases in the percentage of CD₈⁺ cells (MD= -2.37, 95% CI from -4.51 to -0.23, P=0.03).

Conclusions: From the available evidence, our results indicate that KAI plus platinum-based chemotherapy could be more effective in improving clinical efficacy, decreasing the incidence of adverse reactions and regulating the tumor immune function than chemotherapy alone in the treatment of stage III/IV NSCLC. Nevertheless, considering the limitations of the included studies, rigorous designed, high-quality, multicenter clinical trials are still need to further confirm the results.

Astragalus polysaccharide (PG2) Ameliorates Cancer Symptom Clusters, as well as Improves Quality of Life in Patients with Metastatic Disease, through Modulation of the Inflammatory Cascade

Background: Improving patients' quality of life (QoL) is a principal objective of all treatment in any clinical setting, including oncology practices. Cancer-associated inflammation is implicated in disease progression and worsening of patients' QoL. Conventional anticancer therapeutics while selectively eliminating cancerous cells, are evaded by stem cell-like cells, and associated with varying degrees of adverse effects, thus reducing patients' QoL. This necessitates novel therapeutic approaches with enhanced efficacy, minimal or no treatment-related adverse effects, and improved QoL in patients with cancer, especially those with metastatic/advance stage disease. Methods: Sequel to our team's previous publication, the present study explores probable effects of Astragalus polysaccharides (PG2) on cancer-related inflammatory landscape and known determinants of QoL, as well as the probable link between the two to provide mechanistic insight. In an exploratory double blind randomized controlled trial using patients with metastatic disease (n = 23), we comparatively evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of high (500 mg) or low (250 mg) dose PG2 administered intravenously (i.v.), with particular focus on its suggested anti-inflammatory function and the probable effect of same on QoL indices at baseline, then at weeks 4 and 8 post-PG2 treatment. Results: All 23 patients with metastatic disease treated with either low or high PG2 experienced reduced pain, nausea, vomiting, and fatigue, as well as better appetite and sleep, culminating in improved global QoL. This was most apparent in the high dose group, with significant co-suppression of pro-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-13, IL-17, monocytes chemotactic protein (MCP)1, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), tumor growth factor (TGF)-β1, interferon (IFN)-γ, and immune suppressors IL-10 and IL-12. Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that IL-1β, IL-13 and GM-CSF are independent prognosticators of improved QoL. Conclusion: This proof-of-concept study provides premier evidence of functional association between PG2 anti-inflammatory effects and improved QoL in patients with advanced stage cancers, laying the groundwork for future larger cohort blinded controlled trials to establish the efficacy of PG2 as adjuvant anticancer therapy in metastatic or advanced stage clinical settings.

Astragalus polysaccharide restores autophagic flux and improves cardiomyocyte function in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

Doxorubicin (adriamycin), an anthracycline antibiotic, is commonly used to treat many types of solid and hematological malignancies. Unfortunately, clinical usage of doxorubicin is limited due to the associated acute and chronic cardiotoxicity. Previous studies demonstrated that Astragalus polysaccharide (APS), the extracts of Astragalus membranaceus, had strong anti-tumor activities and anti-inflammatory effects. However, whether APS could mitigate chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity is unclear thus far. We used a doxorubicin-induced neonatal rat cardiomyocyte injury model and a mouse heart failure model to explore the function of APS. GFP-LC3 adenovirus-mediated autophagic vesicle assays, GFP and RFP tandemly tagged LC3 (tfLC3) assays and Western blot analyses were performed to analyze the cell function and cell signaling changes following APS treatment in cardiomyocytes. First, doxorubicin treatment led to C57BL/6J mouse heart failure and increased cardiomyocyte apoptosis, with a disturbed cell autophagic flux. Second, APS restored autophagy in doxorubicin-treated primary neonatal rat ventricular myocytes and in the doxorubicin-induced heart failure mouse model. Third, APS attenuated doxorubicin-induced heart injury by regulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway. The mTOR inhibitor rapamycin significantly abrogated the protective effect of APS. These results suggest that doxorubicin could induce heart failure by disturbing cardiomyocyte autophagic flux, which may cause excessive cell apoptosis. APS could restore normal autophagic flux, ameliorating doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by regulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway.

Anti-Aging Implications of Astragalus Membranaceus (Huangqi): A Well-Known Chinese Tonic

Owing to a dramatic increase in average life expectancy and the Family Planning program of the 1970s - 1990s, China is rapidly becoming an aging society. Therefore, the investigation of healthspan-extending drugs becomes more urgent. Astragalus membranaceus (Huangqi) is a major medicinal herb that has been commonly used in many herbal formulations in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat a wide variety of diseases and body disorders, or marketed as life-prolonging extracts for human use in China, for more than 2000 years. The major components of Astragalus membranaceus are polysaccharides, flavonoids, and saponins. Pharmacological research indicates that the extract component of Astragalus membranaceus can increase telomerase activity, and has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, anticancer, hypolipidemic, antihyperglycemic, hepatoprotective, expectorant, and diuretic effects. A proprietary extract of the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus, called TA-65, was associated with a significant age-reversal effect in the immune system. Our review focuses on the function and the underlying mechanisms of Astragalus membranaceus in lifespan extension, anti-vascular aging, anti-brain aging, and anti-cancer effects, based on experimental and clinical studies.

Acidic polysaccharide complexes from purslane, silver linden and lavender stimulate Peyer's patch immune cells through innate and adaptive mechanisms

Three polysaccharide complexes (PSCs) were isolated from the aerial parts of common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), and the flowers of common lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) and silver linden (Tilia tomentosa Moench) by boiling water extraction and ethanol precipitation. The chemical composition and immunomodulating effects of isolated PSCs were characterized. The chemical characterization revealed that the three samples contain mainly pectic polysaccharides. They exhibited ex vivo intestinal immunomodulating activity through the murine Peyer's patch-mediated bone marrow cell proliferation test at 100μg/ml concentration. At the same time, they stimulated ex vivo human blood T-cell populations (CD4⁺/CD25⁺ and CD8⁺/CD25⁺), phagocytic leukocytes (CD14⁺ and CD64⁺ cells) and induced IL-6 production from human white blood cells and Peyer's patch cells. The herbal PSCs stimulated ex vivo ROS production from whole blood phagocytes and showed unspecific in vitro anti-proliferative activity against normal and A549, HeLa and LS180 tumor cells. This is the first report on immunomodulating studies of linden flower pectins and chemical and biological activity characterization of lavender polysaccharides. Our study demonstrates that similarly to purslane, lavender and silver linden herbal materials contain immunomodulating polysaccharides that could be useful for support of compromised immune system.

Characterization and lymphocyte proliferation activity of an oligosaccharide degraded from Astragalus polysaccharide

An Astragalus oligosaccharide (AOS) degraded from Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) and purified by membrane dialysis and silicon gel chromatography is studied in this paper. The structural features of AOS were investigated by a combination of chemical and instrumental analysis, such as monosaccharide analysis, periodate oxidation-Smith degradation, methylation analysis, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results indicated that AOS is an octasaccharide that consists of (3→)-linked-Rha, (1→3)-linked-Rha, (1→3,4)-linked-Araf, (1→3)-linked-Gal, terminal-linked-Gal and terminal-linked-Glc. The effects of AOS on cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression were determined by various studies, such as the proliferation of nucleated marrow, red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) populations, growth of the spleen and thymus, and increases in hemoglobin (HGB) concentration and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) level. The results indicated that AOS can restore cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression by stimulating the secretion of GM-CSF, which promoted the differentiation of progenitor cells after proliferation.

Dietary Supplementation of Astragalus Polysaccharides Enhanced Immune Components and Growth Factors EGF and IGF-1 in Sow Colostrum

Colostrum is the main external resource providing piglets with nutrients and maternal immune molecules. Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) have been used as immunopotentiators in vitro and several animal models. This study aimed to determine the effects of APS on immune factors in sow colostrum and milk. The sow diet was supplemented with APS one week before the expected delivery date. Colostrum and milk were collected and designated as 0 h- (onset of parturition), 12 h-, and 24 h-colostrum and 36 h-milk postpartum. Samples were measured using porcine immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, classical swine fever virus antibody (CSFV Ab), epidermal growth factor (EGF), and insulin-like growth factor- (IGF-) 1 ELISA Quantitation Kits. Dietary supplementation of APS significantly enhanced the presence of IgG, IgM, EGF, and IGF-1 in 0 h-colostrum (P < 0.001). The blocking rates of CSFV Ab were increased in samples from APS-supplemented sow when compared to those from the matched samples without APS treatment. The results indicate that supplement of APS could improve the immune components in sow colostrum and/or milk; and status of some specific vaccination could be determined through using colostrum or early milk in sow.

Preliminary characterization and immunostimulatory activity of a novel functional polysaccharide from Astragalus residue fermented by Paecilomyces sinensis

An Astragalus residue was reutilized through solid-state fermentation by Paecilomyces sinensis, which is a member of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.

Astragaloside IV attenuates inflammatory reaction via activating immune function of regulatory T-cells inhibited by HMGB1 in mice

CONTEXT

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is a highly abundant protein that can promote the pathogenesis of inflammatory. Some experiments have demonstrated a vital role for HMGB1 to modulate the immune function of regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Astragaloside IV (AST IV), an extract from Astragalus membranaceus Moench (Leguminosae), has been shown to exert potent cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. It is still unclear whether AST IV has a latent effect on the proinflammatory ability of HMGB1 with subsequent activation of Tregs in vivo.

OBJECTIVE

This research explores the antagonism of different doses of AST IV on the immunologic function of Tregs mediated by HMGB1.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mouse models (BALB/c) were constructed by which normal saline or AST IV was administered i.p. at 2, 4 and 6 days after the administration i.p. of 20 μg recombinate HMGB1. Spleen was used to procure Treg and CD4 ⁺ CD25^- T-cells which were co-cultured with Treg. Cell phenotypes of Tregs(Foxp3) were examined, and the cytokine levels in supernatants and the proliferation of T-cells were assayed. Gene expression was measured by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

(1) The expression levels of Foxp3 in Treg on post-stimulus days (PSD) 1-7 were significantly decreased in the HMGB1 group in comparison to those in the control group mice (p < 0.01). The Foxp3 expression was markedly increased in a dose-dependent manner in the AST group as compared with those in the HMGB1 group (p < 0.0 1-0.05). The same results were found in the contents of cytokines (IL-10 and TGF-β) released into supernatants by Treg. (2) When CD4 ⁺ CD25^- T-cells were co-cultured with Treg stimulated by HMGB1, the cell proliferation and the levels of cytokines (IL-2 and IFN-γ) in supernatant were markedly increased as compared with those in the HMGB1 group. The level of IL-4 was markedly decreased as compared with that in the HMGB1 group. The same results were found when CD4 ⁺ CD25^- T-cells were co-cultured with Treg in the NS group. Compared with those in the NS group, the contrary results were shown in a dose-dependent manner in the AST group.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results showed that AST IV has a therapeutic effect on inflammation promoted by HMGB1, and it should be studied as a new drug for the treatment of sepsis.

Astragalus polysaccharide modulates ER stress response in an OVA-LPS induced murine model of severe asthma

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been recently revealed to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of severe asthma. Astragalus polysaccharide (APS), a major bioactive component from Astragalus membranaceus, exerts immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects and has been shown to suppress ER stress in chronic diseases such as type-2 diabetes. However, the pharmaceutical application of APS in the treatment of severe asthma is unknown. The results obtained here indicate that APS significantly attenuates eosinophils and neutrophil-dominant airway inflammation by reducing the mRNA levels of Cxcl5, Il8, and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20 (Ccl20) and the protein levels of IL13RA and IL17RA. APS also inhibits the activation of unfolded protein response by decreasing the levels of ER stress markers such as C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), which was associated with a reduction of PERK phosphorylation. Moreover, APS substantially blocks the nuclear translocation of ATF6 and NF-κB p65. Interestingly, we observed that APS markedly suppresses mucus hypersecretion by decreasing the levels of mucin (MUC) 5AC and MUC5B, which might be due to inhibition of goblet cells differentiation by suppressing the expression of IRE1β-correlated genes. In summary, APS can have potential pharmaceutical application in treatment of severe asthma.

TLR-4 may mediate signaling pathways of Astragalus polysaccharide RAP induced cytokine expression of RAW264.7 cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Polysaccharides of Radix Astragali (Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch) Bge.; Huangqi) are able to induce cytokine production of macrophages and are considered the main active ingredient for the immune-enhancing effect of this commonly used medicinal herb.

AIM OF STUDY

To investigate the molecular mechanism of immunomodulating activities of a reported Astragalus polysaccharide, RAP, which is a hyperbranched heteroglycan with average molecular weight of 1334kDa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cytokine production of RAW264.7 cells were analyzed by using ELISA assays while cell viability was assessed by MTT method. Western blot analysis was used for determining protein contents of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). In addition, the level of IL-6, iNOS, and TNF-α mRNA was determined by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

It has been found that RAP itself did not have any cytotoxic effect on mouse mammary carcinoma 4T1 cells, but it significantly enhanced cytotoxicity of the supernatant of RAW264.7cells on 4T1 cells. Furthermore, RAP enhanced the production of NO and cytokines in RAW264.7 cells, and significantly up-regulated gene expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS. All these bioactivities were blocked by the inhibitor of TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4), suggesting that TLR4 is a receptor of RAP and mediates its immunomodulating activity. Further analyses demonstrated that RAP rapidly activated TLR4-related MAPKs, including phosphorylated ERK, phosphorylated JNK, and phosphorylated p38, and induced translocation of NF-κB as well as degradation of IκB-α. These results are helpful to better understand the immunomodulating effects of Radix Astragali.

CONCLUSIONS

RAP may induce cytokine production of RAW264.7 cells through TLR4-mediated activation of MAPKs and NF-κB.

Modulatory Effects of Astragalus Polysaccharides on T-Cell Polarization in Mice with Polymicrobial Sepsis

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the impact of different doses of Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the functional status and phenotype of T cells during polymicrobial sepsis.

METHODS

On day 1 after cecal ligation and puncture, mice were treated with either saline, 100 (A100), 200 (A200), or 400 mg APS/kg body weight (BW) (A400) by an intraperitoneal injection daily for 4 days. All mice were sacrificed 5 days after the operation.

RESULTS

APS treatment reversed the sepsis-induced decrement in the T helper (Th) cell population, and the percentage of activated Th cells also increased in the spleen and Peyer's patches. APS administration downregulated the percentages of circulating Th2 cells and regulatory T cells (Treg), and the percentage of Th17 cells in blood was upregulated in the A400 group. Weight loss and kidney injury were attenuated in the A100 and A200 groups but not in the A400 group at the end of the study.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatments with 100 and 200 mg APS/kg BW reduced Treg populations and elicited a more-balanced Th1/Th2 response that consequently attenuated immunosuppression in polymicrobial sepsis. High-dose APS administration led to excessive responses of Th17 cells which may have adverse effects in sepsis-induced organ injury.