1H NMR-based metabonomics study of the urinary biochemical changes in Kansui treated rat

Traditional Chinese medicine Zhusha Anshen Wan: protective effects on liver, kidney, and intestine of the individual drugs using 1H NMR metabolomics

Introduction: Zhusha Anshen Wan (ZSASW) is a traditional Chinese medicine compound mainly composed of mineral drugs. In clinical practice, ZSASW did not show the toxicity of administering equal doses of cinnabar alone, suggesting that the four combination herbs in ZSASW can alleviate the damage of cinnabar. The effect of each herb on reducing the toxicity of cinnabar has not been fully explained. Methods: In our study, we utilized a metabonomics approach based on high-resolution 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate the reduction of toxicity by each herb in ZSASW. Liver, kidney and intestinal histopathology examinations and biochemical analysis of the serum were also performed. Results: Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was conducted to distinct different metabolic profiles in the urine and serum from the rats. Liver and kidney histopathology examinations, as well as analysis of serum clinical chemistry analysis, were also carried out. The metabolic profiles of the urine and serum of the rats in the CGU (treated with cinnabar and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch) and CCC (treated with cinnabar and Coptis chinensis French) groups were remarkably similar to those of the control group, while those of the CRG (treated with cinnabar and Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch) and CAS (treated with cinnabar and Angelica sinensis) groups were close to those of the cinnabar group. The metabolic profiles of the urine and serum of the rats in the CGU and CCC groups were remarkably similar to those of the control group, while those of the CRG and CAS groups were close to those of the cinnabar group. Changes in endogenous metabolites associated with toxicity were identified. Rehmannia glutinosa, Rhizoma Coptidis and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch could maintain the dynamic balance of the intestinal flora. These results were also verified by liver, kidney and intestinal histopathology examinations and biochemical analysis of the serum. The results suggested that Discussion: The metabolic mechanism of single drug detoxification in compound prescriptions has been elucidated. Coptis chinensis and Glycyrrhiza uralensis serve as the primary detoxification agents within ZSASW for mitigating liver, kidney, and intestinal damage caused by cinnabar. Detoxification can be observed through changes in the levels of various endogenous metabolites and related metabolic pathways.

Comparison of the short-chain fatty acids in normal rat faeces after the treatment of Euphorbia kansui, a traditional Chinese medicine for edoema

Context: As a toxic traditional Chinese medicine for edoema, Euphorbia kansui S.L. Liou ex S.B. Ho (Euphorbiaceae) (EK) stir-fried with vinegar for detoxification was associated with alterations of gut microbiota. However, the evidence of correlation between short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and toxicity of EK has not been confirmed.Objective: In order to study the biological basis of detoxification of EK stir-fried with vinegar (VEK), a rapid, sensitive and validated GC-MS method was developed to determine SCFAs in normal rat faeces after given EK and VEK.Materials and methods: Sprague Dawley rats were orally administered 0.5% CMC-Na (control group), EK (EK-treated group) and VEK powder (VEK-treated group) at 680 mg/kg for six consecutive days (eight rats each group). Fresh faeces samples were promptly collected, derivatized and then analyzed by GC-MS.Results: The ranges of LOD and LOQ were within 0.13-1.79 and 0.45-5.95 μg/mL, respectively. The RSD values of intra-day and inter-day precisions were less than 15%. Four SCFAs were generally stable under four storage conditions. The extraction recoveries were ranged from 53.5% to 97.3% with RSD values lower than 15%. The concentrations of four SCFAs in EK and VEK were decreased significantly compared with those not administered (EK-treated, p < 0.01; VEK-treated, p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). After being stir-fried with vinegar, the concentrations were all increased (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01).Discussion and conclusions: The negative correlation between SCFAs and toxicity of EK may provide evidence for biological mechanism and toxic Chinese medicine.

Hepatic and Renal Toxicity Induced by TiO2 Nanoparticles in Rats: A Morphological and Metabonomic Study

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) are produced abundantly and are frequently used as a white pigment in the manufacture of paints, foods, paper, and toothpaste. Despite the wide ranges of uses, there is a lack of information on the impact of NPs on animal and human health. In the present study, rats were exposed to different doses of TiO₂ nanoparticles and sacrificed, respectively, 4 days, 1 month, and 2 months after treatment. Dosage of TiO₂ in tissues was performed by ICP-AES and revealed an important accumulation of TiO₂ in the liver. The nanoparticles induced morphological and physiological alterations in liver and kidney. In the liver, these alterations mainly affect the hepatocytes located around the centrilobular veins. These cells were the site of an oxidative stress evidenced by immunocytochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Kupffer cells are also the site of an important oxidative stress following the massive internalization of TiO₂ nanoparticles. Enzymatic markers of liver and kidney functions (such as AST and uric acid) are also disrupted only in animals exposed to highest doses. The metabonomic approach allowed us to detect modifications in urine samples already detectable after 4 days in animals treated at the lowest dose. This metabonomic pattern testifies an oxidative stress as well as renal and hepatic alterations.

Application of metabolomics in toxicity evaluation of traditional Chinese medicines

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) have a long history of use because of its potential complementary therapy and fewer adverse effects. However, the toxicity and safety issues of TCM have drawn considerable attention in the past two decades. Metabolomics is an “omics” approach that aims to comprehensively analyze all metabolites in biological samples. In agreement with the holistic concept of TCM, metabolomics has shown great potential in efficacy and toxicity evaluation of TCM. Recently, a large amount of metabolomic researches have been devoted to exploring the mechanism of toxicity induced by TCM, such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and cardiotoxicity. In this paper, the application of metabolomics in toxicity evaluation of bioactive compounds, TCM extracts and TCM prescriptions are reviewed, and the potential problems and further perspectives for application of metabolomics in toxicological studies are also discussed.

Euphorbia kansui fry-baked with vinegar modulates gut microbiota and reduces intestinal toxicity in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Euphorbia kansui (EK), a kind of toxic traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), is used in the treatment of edema, ascites and asthma. EK fry-baked with vinegar (VEK) is regularly used to reduce the toxicity in TCM. Previous studies have confirmed that fry-baking with vinegar could significantly reduce the significant gastrointestinal toxicity of EK. The toxic side-effects of EK are closely associated with intestinal tract, but existing research results could not provide practical measures for detoxification in terms of the biological effects of EK fry-baked with vinegar.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the gastrointestinal toxicity of EK and detoxification of VEK through the regulation of gut microbiota. Thirty male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided equally into 3 groups and received by oral gavage 0.5% CMC-Na (C group), EK (EKC group) or VEK (VEKC group) powder at 680 mg/kg for seven consecutive days.

RESULTS

The ten toxic components in VEK were reduced significantly compared with those in EK. After fry-baked with vinegar, those side effects associated with VEK were significantly relieved in terms of histopathology and inflammatory injury indices of intestinal tissues, liver function and oxidative damage indices. The toxicity of EK might be highly correlated with Lactobacillus and Blautia genera. In addition, EK fry-baked with vinegar increased the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are regulated by gut microbiota.

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of main probiotics increased and potentially pathogenic bacteria decreased after EK was fry-baked with vinegar. It turned out that effective detoxification could be achieved by fry-baking with vinegar.

Altered Serum Metabolite Profiling and Relevant Pathway Analysis in Rats Stimulated by Honeybee Venom: New Insight into Allergy to Honeybee Venom

To improve our understanding of the disturbed metabolic pathways and cellular responses triggered by honeybee venom stimulation, we compared the changes in serum metabolites in rats, either stimulated or not by honeybee venom, by performing ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry-based metabonomics to identify potential biomarkers. In this study, 65 metabolites were structurally confirmed and quantified and the following results were obtained. First, by pattern recognition analysis, 14 metabolites were selected as potential biomarkers 3 h after venom stimulation. Second, metabolic pathway analysis showed that methane metabolism, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism were affected. Finally, the time-dependent metabolic modifications indicated that rats could recover without medical treatment 24 h after venom stimulation. In summary, this new insight into the changes in serum metabolites in rats after honeybee venom stimulation has enhanced our understanding of the response of an organism to honeybee venom.

Metabolic Profiling Analysis of the Alleviation Effect of the Fractions of Niuhuang Jiedu Tablet on Realgar Induced Toxicity in Rats

Niuhuang Jiedu Tablet (NJT) is a classical formula in treating acute tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and so on. In the formula, significant level of Realgar as a potentially toxic element is contained. Our previous experiments revealed that it was less toxic for combined Realgar in NJT. However, the active fraction of this prescription with toxicity alleviation effect on Realgar was still obscure. NJT was divided into five different polar fractions (NJT-PET, NJT-25, NJT-50, NJT-75, and NJT-95), and we explored the toxicity alleviation effect on Realgar. Based on 1H NMR spectra of urine and serum from rats, PCA and PLS-DA were performed to identify different metabolic profiles. Liver and kidney histopathology examinations and serum clinical chemistry analysis were also performed. With pattern recognition analysis of metabolites in urine and serum, Realgar group showed a clear separation from control group, while the metabolic profiles of NJT-PET, NJT-25, NJT-50, and NJT-95 groups were similar to Realgar group, and the metabolic profiles of NJT and NJT-75 groups were very close to control group. Statistics results were confirmed by the histopathological examination and biochemical assay. The present work indicated that 75% EtOH fraction of NJT was the most valid fraction with the toxicity alleviation effect on Realgar.

Toxicological effects of Nux Vomica in rats urine and serum by means of clinical chemistry, histopathology and 1H NMR-based metabonomics approach

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried ripe seeds of Nux Vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica L.), a traditional Chinese medicine, have been used to treat multifarious symptoms. However, the clinical applications of Nux Vomica are limited by its severe toxicity. In this study, Nux Vomica was subjected to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabonomics and pathological examination to determine relevant biomarkers in target organs and to explain the underlying toxicity mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Thirty-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups of twelve rats. The control group was oral gavaged with distilled water, and two experiment groups were treated with Nux Vomica at a dose of 0.315 and 0.630g/kg body weight. On days 14 and 21, serum, urine, liver and kidney tissues were collected for histopathological examination, biochemical analysis and ¹H-NMR analysis.

RESULTS

The metabolites changes of rats treated with Nux Vomica are obviously differ from that of controls. In serum, low-dose group compared with control shows the significantly changes included elevated concentration of glucose, TMAO, and creatine, with decreased lipids, 3-HB, lactate, and unsaturated fatty acid. Change in taurine was only observed in the separation comparison of high-dose group and control. In urine, the variation metabolites included elevations in glucose, creatine, and TMAO as well as decreased lactate, succinate, α-ketoglutaric acid, citrate and hippurate in low-dose group compared with control. Only alanine and creatine were decreased significantly in high-dose group compared with control.

CONCLUSION

Nux Vomica induced disruptions in glycolysis, lipid and amino acid metabolism, and toxic effects were aggravated in liver and kidney tissues as dosing time was prolonged. ¹H NMR-based metabonomics combined with biochemical and histopathological methods can be applied to elucidate the toxicity mechanism of Nux Vomica decoction that caused liver and kidney injuries in rats.

Health Effects of Dietary Oxidized Tyrosine and Dityrosine Administration in Mice with Nutrimetabolomic Strategies

This study aims to investigate the health effects of long-term dietary oxidized tyrosine (O-Tyr) and its main product (dityrosine) administration on mice metabolism. Mice received daily intragastric administration of either O-Tyr (320 μg/kg body weight), dityrosine (Dityr, 320 μg/kg body weight), or saline for consecutive 6 weeks. Urine and plasma samples were analyzed by NMR-based metabolomics strategies. Body weight, clinical chemistry, oxidative damage indexes, and histopathological data were obtained as complementary information. O-Tyr and Dityr exposure changed many systemic metabolic processes, including reduced choline bioavailability, led to fat accumulation in liver, induced hepatic injury, and renal dysfunction, resulted in changes in gut microbiota functions, elevated risk factor for cardiovascular disease, altered amino acid metabolism, induced oxidative stress responses, and inhibited energy metabolism. These findings implied that it is absolutely essential to reduce the generation of oxidation protein products in food system through improving modern food processing methods.

Metabolic Profiling Analysis of the Alleviation Effect of Treatment with Baicalin on Cinnabar Induced Toxicity in Rats Urine and Serum

Objectives: Baicalin is the main bioactive flavonoid constituent isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. The mechanisms of protection of liver remain unclear. In this study, ¹H NMR-based metabonomics approach has been used to investigate the alleviation effect of Baicalin.

Method:¹H NMR metabolomics analyses of urine and serum from rats, was performed to illuminate the alleviation effect of Baicalin on mineral medicine (cinnabar)-induced liver and kidney toxicity.

Results: The metabolic profiles of groups receiving Baicalin at a dose of 80 mg/kg were remarkably different from cinnabar, and meanwhile, the level of endogenous metabolites returned to normal compared to group cinnabar. PLS-DA scores plots demonstrated that the variation tendency of control and Baicalein are apart from Cinnabar. The metabolic profiles of group Baicalein were similar to those of group control. Statistics results were confirmed by the histopathological examination and biochemical assay.

Conclusion: Baicalin have the alleviation effect to the liver and kidney damage induced by cinnabar. The Baicalin could regulate endogenous metabolites associated with the energy metabolism, choline metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and gut flora.

An Ingenol Derived from Euphorbia kansui Induces Hepatocyte Cytotoxicity by Triggering G0/G1 Cell Cycle Arrest and Regulating the Mitochondrial Apoptosis Pathway in Vitro

Natural product lingenol, a purified diterpenoid compound derived from the root of Euphorbia kansui, exerts serious hepatotoxicity; however, the molecular mechanisms remain to be defined. In the present study, cell counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), inverted phase contrast microscope and flow cytometry were used to demonstrate that lingenol significantly inhibited L-O2 cells proliferation, and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Moreover, the results investigated that lingenol markedly disrupted mitochondrial functions by high content screening (HCS). In addition, the up-regulation of cytochrome c, AIF and Apaf-1 and activation of caspases were found in L-O2 cells detected by Western blotting and ELISA assay, which was required for lingenol activation of cytochrome c-mediated caspase cascades and AIF-mediated DNA damage. Mechanistic investigations revealed that lingenol significantly down-regulated the Bcl-2/Bax ratio and enhanced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in L-O2 cells. These data collectively indicated that lingenol modulation of ROS and Bcl-2/Bax ratio led to cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis in L-O2 cells in vitro. All of these results will be helpful to reveal the hepatotoxicity mechanism of Euphorbia kansui and to effectively guide safer and better clinical application of this herb.

Metabolomics study on the toxicity of Annona squamosa by ultraperformance liquid-chromatography high-definition mass spectrometry coupled with pattern recognition approach and metabolic pathways analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Annona squamosa Linn (Annonaceae) is a commonly used and effective traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) especially in the South China. The seeds of Annona squamosa Linn (SAS) have been used as a folk remedy to treat "malignant sores" (cancer) in South of China, but they also have high toxicity on human body.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To discover the potential biomarkers in the mice caused by SAS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We made metabonomics studies on the toxicity of SAS by ultraperformance liquid-chromatography high-definition mass spectrometry coupled with pattern recognition approach and metabolic pathways analysis.

RESULTS

The significant difference in metabolic profiles and changes of metabolite biomarkers between the Control group and SAS group were well observed. 11 positive ions and 9 negative ions (P<0.05) were indicated based on UFLC-QTOF-HDMS. The metabolic pathways of SAS group are discussed according to the identified endogenous metabolites, and eight metabolic pathways are identified using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates that metabonomics analysis could greatly facilitate and provide useful information for the further comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological activity and potential toxicity of SAS in the progress of them being designed to a new anti-tumor medicine.

Metabolomics and its application to the evaluation of the efficacy and toxicity of traditional Chinese herb medicines

Traditional Chinese herb medicines (TCHMs) have been used in the treatment of a variety of diseases for thousands of years in Asian countries. The active components of TCHMs usually exert combined synergistic therapeutic effects on multiple targets, but with less potential therapeutic effect based on routine indices than Western drugs. These complex effects make the assessment of the efficacy of TCHMs and the clarification of their underlying mechanisms very challenging, and therefore hinder their wider application and acceptance. Metabolomics is a crucial part of systems biology. It allows the quantitative measurement of large numbers of the low-molecular endogenous metabolites involved in metabolic pathways, and thus reflects the fundamental metabolism status of the body. Recently, dozens of metabolomic studies have been devoted to prove the efficacy/safety, explore the underlying mechanisms, and identify the potential biomarkers to access the action targets of TCHMs, with fruitful results. This article presents an overview of these studies, focusing on the progress made in exploring the pharmacology and toxicology of various herbal medicines.

3-O-(2'E,4'Z-decadienoyl)-20-O-acetylingenol induces apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells of rats via mitochondrial pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Euphorbia kansui is a traditional Chinese medicine widely used for the treatment of edema, ascite and asthma in China for centuries. However, its serious gastrointestinal toxicity restricted its safe clinical application. 3-O-(2'E,4'Z-decadienoyl)-20-O-acetylingenol (3EZ,20Ac-ingenol), a diterpenoid compound derived from kansui, has obvious gastrointestinal cytotoxicity in cells. Until now, its gastrointestinal cytotoxic mechanism is mostly unknown. This study focused on elucidating the cytotoxic mechanism of 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol in intestinal epithelial cells of rats (IEC-6 cells) to guide safer application of this herb in clinic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3EZ,20Ac-ingenol was isolated from the EtOAc extract of kansui. Cell morphology was detected by inverted phase contrast microscope and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Cell apoptosis was examined by Annexin V-FITC/PI dual-staining or Hoechst staining. ROS generation was detected with DCFH-DA staining by laser scanning confocal microscope. MMP change was examined with JC-1 staining by high content screening (HCS). Further, the release of cytochrome c, the expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, AIF and Apaf-1 were analyzed by western blot and the activities of caspase-3, 8, 9 were determined by ELISA. Additionally, cell cycle analysis was performed to detect the effects of 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol on cell cycle in IEC-6 cells by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The study showed that 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol significantly reduced IEC-6 cells viability in a dose-dependent manner and the IC50 value was 5.74 μg/mL. Consistently, 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol could elevate reactive oxygen species (ROS), disrupt mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), induce the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytosol, enhance the expressions of Bax, AIF and Apaf-1, suppress the expression of Bcl-2, then activate caspase-3, 8, 9 cascade, and subsequently result in apoptosis. Additionally, 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol also could cause G2/M phase arrest in IEC-6 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that 3EZ,20Ac-ingenol induced the cytotoxicity of IEC-6 cells depends on induction of cell apoptosis via mitochondrial pathway and cell cycle arrest.

Colon-derived uremic biomarkers induced by the acute toxicity of Kansui radix: A metabolomics study of rat plasma and intestinal contents by UPLC-QTOF-MS(E)

Kansui radix (KR) is a poisonous Chinese herbal medicine recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and the acute toxicity obstructs its clinical applications. To explore its acute toxicity mechanism to enhance clinical safety, a metabolomics study based on UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS(E) was performed. Wistar rats were exposed for 4h to the aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts prepared from KR at a high dose (25g/kg). The contents of six different sections of rat intestine, including the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, and rectum were collected as samples for the first time, as well as the rat plasma. The interesting results showed that only those rats exposed to the ethyl acetate extract showed a watery diarrhea, similar to the observed acute human toxicity. The identified biomarkers found in the plasma, such as phenol sulfate, indoxyl sulfate, and p-cresol sulfate were significantly perturbed in the rats. These biomarkers are known as colon-derived uremic compounds, which were first reported with respect to KR. The three essential amino acids which produced these biomarkers were only found in the contents of colon and rectum. A hypothesis was proposed that only the colon-derived uremic compounds induced by KR might be responsible for the acute toxicity. Three traditional process methods to reduce the toxicity of KR were compared based on these biomarkers, and different levels of toxicity modulation were observed. These results may be helpful to further understand the mechanism of acute toxicity, and the relevance of the traditional process methods to ameliorate the adverse effects of KR.

A Natural Triterpene Derivative from Euphorbia kansui Inhibits Cell Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis against Rat Intestinal Epithelioid Cell Line in Vitro

Kansenone is a triterpene from the root of the traditional Chinese medicine, Euphorbia kansui. However, kansenone exerts serious toxicity, but the exact mechanism was not clear. In this work, the effects of kansenone on cell proliferation, cell cycle, cell damage, and cell apoptosis were investigated. The suppression of cell proliferation was assessed via the colorimetric MTT assay, and cell morphology was visualized via inverted microscopy after IEC-6 cells were incubated with different concentrations of kansenone. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were detected for evaluating cell damage. RNase/propidium iodide (PI) labeling for evaluation of cell cycle distribution was performed by flow cytometry analysis. Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)/PI and Hoechst 33342/Annexin V-FITC/PI staining assay for cell apoptosis detection were performed using confocal laser scanning microscopy and high content screening. Moreover, apoptosis induction was further confirmed by transmission electron microscope (TEM) and JC-1 mitochondrial membrane potential, western blot and RT-PCR analysis. The results demonstrated that kansenone exerted high cytotoxicity, induced cell arrest at G0/G1 phase, and caused mitochondria damage. In addition, kansenone could up-regulate the apoptotic proteins Bax, AIF, Apaf-1, cytochrome c, caspase-3, caspase-9, caspase-8, FasR, FasL, NF-κB, and TNFR1 mRNA expression levels, and down-regulate the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins, revealing that kansenone induces apoptosis through both the death receptor and mitochondrial pathways.

Effects of high fructose and salt feeding on systematic metabonome probed via (1) H NMR spectroscopy

Diets rich in high fructose and salt are increasingly popular in our daily life. A combination consumption of excessive fructose and salt can induce insulin resistance (IR) and hypertension (HT), which are major public health problems around the world. However, the effects of high fructose and salt on systematic metabonome remain unknown, which is very important for revealing the molecular mechanism of IR and HT induced by this dietary pattern. The metabolic profiling in urine, plasma, and fecal extracts from high fructose and salt-fed rats was investigated by use of (1) H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomics approach in this study. Multivariate analysis of NMR data showed the effects of high fructose and salt on the global metabonome. The metabolite analysis in urine and fecal extracts showed the time-dependent metabolic changes, which displayed metabonomic progression axes from normal to IR and HT status. The changes of 2-oxoglutarate, creatine and creatinine, citrate, hippurate, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), and betaine in urine, together with gut microbiota disorder in feces, were observed at the preliminary formation stage of IR and HT (fourth week). At the severe stage (eighth week), the previously mentioned metabolic changes were aggravated, and the changes of lipid and choline metabolism in plasma suggested the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. These findings provide an overview of biochemistry consequences of high fructose and salt feeding and comprehensive insights into the progression of systematic metabonome for IR and HT induced by this dietary pattern.

Chronic toxicity of crude ricinine in rats assessed by1H NMR metabolomics analysis

A¹H-NMR based metabolomics approach combined with OSC-PLS-DA was applied to investigate the chronic toxicity of crude ricinine from castor bean shell in rats for the first time.

A1H NMR-based metabonomic investigation of time-dependent metabolic trajectories in a high salt-induced hypertension rat model

The time-dependent metabolic profiles in urine, plasma and feces of salt-fed hypertensive rats were systematically investigated using NMR-based metabonomics.

Toxicity assessment of Arisaematis Rhizoma in rats by a 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach

A ¹H NMR based metabolomics approach combined with serum biochemistry and histopathological examination was used to study the toxicity of Arisaematis Rhizoma by intragastrical administration for the first time.

Overview on metabolomics in traditional Chinese medicine

Metabolomics has been widely used in the modern research of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). At the same time, the world is increasingly concerned about TCM, and many studies have been conducted to investigate different aspects of TCM. Among these studies, metabolomic approach has been implemented to facilitate TCM development. The current methods for TCM research are diverse, including nuclear magnetic resonance, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Using these techniques, some advantageous results have been obtained in the studies of TCM, such as diagnosis and treatment, quality control, and mechanisms of action. It is believed that the further development of metabolomic analytical techniques is beneficial to the modernization of TCM. This review summarizes potential applications of metabolomics in the area of TCM. Guidelines for good practice for the application of metabolomics in TCM research are also proposed, and the special role of metabolomics in TCM is highlighted.

An effective assessment of valproate sodium-induced hepatotoxicity with UPLC-MS and (1)HNMR-based metabonomics approach

Valproate sodium is one of the most prescribed antiepileptic drugs. However, valproate sodium has various side effects, especially its toxicity on liver. Current markers for toxicity reflect mostly the late stages of tissue damage; thus, more efficient methods for toxicity evaluation are desired. To evaluate the toxicity of valproate sodium on liver, we performed both UPLC-MS and (1)HNMR-based metabonomics analysis of serum samples from 34 epileptic patients (age: 42.0±18.6, 18 male/16 female) after valproate sodium treatment. Compared to conventional markers, the serum metabolic profiles provided clear distinction of the valproate sodium induced normal liver function and abnormal liver function in epileptic patients. Through multivariate statistical analysis, we identified marker metabolites associated with the hepatotoxicity induced by valproate sodium, such as glucose, lactate, acetoacetate, VLDL/LDL, lysophosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylcholines, choline, creatine, amino acids, N-acetyl glycoprotein, pyruvate and uric acid. This metabonomics approach may provide effective way to evaluate the valproate sodium-induced toxicity in a manner that can complement current measures. This approach is expected to find broader application in other drug-induced toxicity assessment.

A metabolic profiling analysis of the acute toxicological effects of the realgar (As₂S₂) combined with other herbs in Niuhuang Jiedu Tablet using ¹H NMR spectroscopy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Niuhuang Jiedu Tablet (NJT), composed of Realgar (As₂S₂), Bovis Calculus Artificialis, Borneolum Synthcticum, Gypsum Fibrosum, Rhei Radix et Rhizoma (RR), Scutellariae Radix (SR), Platycodonis Radix (PR) and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma (GR), is an effective formula of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) used in treating acute tonsillitis, pharyngitis, periodontitis and mouth ulcer. In the formula, significant level of realgar (As₂S₂) as a potentially toxic element is contained. In our pervious experiments, NJT was significantly less toxic than realgar (As₂S₂), and the material bases of toxicity alleviation effect to realgar (As₂S₂) were RR, SR, PR and GR. However, the toxicity alleviation effect of each above mentioned four herbs to realgar (As₂S₂) and their synergistic detoxification effects to realgar (As₂S₂) were still obscure.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into 11 groups: control, group R (treated with Realgar), group RRSPG (treated with Realgar, RR, SR, PR and GR), group RRSP (treated with Realgar, RR, SR and PR), group RRSG (treated with Realgar, RR, SR and GR), group RRPG (treated with Realgar, RR, PR and GR), group RSPG (treated with Realgar, SR, PR and GR), group RR (treated with Realgar and RR), group RS (treated with Realgar and SR), group RP (treated with Realgar and PR) and group RG (treated with Realgar and GR). Based on (1)H NMR spectra of urine and serum from rats, PCA and PLS-DA were performed to identify different metabolic profiles. Liver and kidney histopathology examinations and serum clinical chemistry analysis were also performed.

RESULTS

The metabolic profiles of groups RR, RS, RP and RG were similar to those of group R, while the metabolic profiles of groups RRSPG, RRSP, RRSG, RRPG and RSPG were almost in line with those of control group. Statistics results were confirmed by the histopathological examination and biochemical assay.

CONCLUSION

The present work suggested that the toxicity alleviation effects of RR, SR, PR and GR to realgar (As₂S₂) were not obvious when combined with realgar (As₂S₂) respectively, but they had synergistic detoxification effects on realgar (As₂S₂) mutually.

Systems biochemical responses of rats to Kansui and vinegar-processed Kansui exposure by integrated metabonomics

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The dried root of Kansui (Euphorbia kansui L.) is an effective and commonly used traditional Chinese medicine. Even so, Kansui cannot be satisfactorily applied clinically because of toxic side effects. In China, the most common Kansui-processing method uses vinegar to reduce its toxicity. The present study was designed to investigate the toxic effects caused by Kansui and evaluate detoxification of Kansui by vinegar processing of Kansui.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Thirty male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly assigned to five groups of six rats. Two experimental groups were oral gavaged with 7.875 and 15.75 g Kansui/kg body weight, two treated with 7.875 and 15.75 g VP-Kansui/kg body weight for 14 d, and the control group concurrently subjected to oral gavage with only distilled water. On day 14, plasma, liver and kidney tissues were collected from all rats for biochemistry assessments, histopathological examination, and NMR analyses.

RESULTS

The metabonome of rats treated with Kansui and vinegar-processed (VP-) Kansui was found to differ from that of controls. In liver extracts, the variational metabolites included elevated concentrations of isoleucine, leucine, valine, glutamate, and phenylalanine, with decreased taurine, glucose, and glycogen. However, changes in lysine, methionine, choline, phosphorylcholine, and tyrosine were only observed in Kansui-treated rats. In kidney extracts, prominent changes included elevations in isoleucine, leucine, valine, methionine, creatine/creatinine, and phenylalanine as well as decreased glutamine. Only Kansui treatment induced variations in alanine, lysine, acetate, choline, and phosphorylcholine.

CONCLUSION

Perturbations in endogenous metabolites induced by Kansui correlated with disturbances in glycolysis and amino acid and lipid metabolism, while biochemical pathway disorders caused by VP-Kansui only involved glycolysis and amino acid metabolism. All results were confirmed by histopathological examination of liver and kidney tissues and clinical biochemistry analyses.

Combination of ¹H NMR- and GC-MS-based metabonomics to study on the toxicity of Coptidis Rhizome in rats

BACKGROUND

Coptidis Rhizome (CR), widely applied to treat with heat and toxicity, is one of the most commonly used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), however, an extensive dosage can induce toxicity. Diarrhea is one of the most frequent side effects of CR treatment.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this study, metabonomics was combined with the multivariate statistical analysis to discover the endogenous metabolites which related to the diarrheal induced by CR. The male Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed with 4.95 g CR/kg weight. Urine samples were collected at day -1 (before treatment), and days 14 and 21 for NMR analysis. Serum and tissues were collected at day 14 for GC-MS analysis and histopathological examination, respectively. The urine and serum metabolic profiles provided clearer distinction between CR-treated group and control group, which was confirmed by body weight change and diarrhea. Through multivariate statistical analysis, 12 marker metabolites from ¹H NMR and 8 ones from GC-MS have been found. Among those metabolites, hippurate, acetate, alanine, glycine and glutamate are likely to break the balance of gut microbiota, whereas, lactate and 2-ketoisovalerate showed association with energy metabolism. Meanwhile, we observed that the CR-induced toxicity will recover when the treatment was stopped.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These results suggest that the main reason for the CR-associated diarrhea might be disturbance in the normal gut microbiota. This metabonomics approach may provide an effective way to study the alteration of gut microbiota, which is expected to find broader application in other drug-induced gastrointestinal reaction assessment.

(1)H NMR-based metabonomics study on the toxicity alleviation effect of other traditional Chinese medicines in Niuhuang Jiedu tablet to realgar (As2S2)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Niuhuang Jiedu Tablet (NJT) is an effective prescription of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) used in treating acute tonsillitis, pharyngitis, periodontitis and mouth ulcer. NJT is prepared from Xionghuang (Realgar, As2S2), Rengong Niuhuang (Bovis Calculus Artificialis), Bingpian (Borneolum Synthcticum), Shigao (Gypsum Fibrosum), Dahuang (Rhei Radix et Rhizoma), Huangqin (Scutellariae Radix), Jiegeng (Platycodonis Radix) and Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma). In the prescription, significant level of realgar (As2S2) as a potentially toxic element is contained.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, (1)H NMR-based metabonomics approach has been used to investigate the toxicity of realgar (As2S2) after being counterbalanced by other TCMs in NJT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into five groups: control, group I (treated with Realgar), group II (treated with Realgar, Bovis Calculus Artificialis, Borneolum Synthcticum, Gypsum Fibrosum, Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, Scutellariae Radix, Platycodonis Radix and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), group III (treated with Realgar, Bovis Calculus Artificialis, Borneolum Synthcticum and Gypsum Fibrosum) and group IV (treated with Realgar, Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, Scutellariae Radix, Platycodonis Radix and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma). Based on (1)H-NMR spectra of urine and serum from rats, PCA and PLS-DA were performed to identify different metabolic profiles. Liver and kidney histopathology examinations and serum clinical chemistry analysis were also performed.

RESULTS

PLS-DA scores plots demonstrated that the cluster of group I was separated from that of control rats, while group II was located close to control rats, indicating that metabolic profiles of group II were restored toward those of control rats. The metabolic profiles of group III were similar to those of group I, while the metabolic profiles of group II were almost in line with those of group II. Statistics results were confirmed by the histopathological examination and biochemical assay.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated that it was more secure and much less toxic for counterbalanced realgar (As2S2) in NJT. The effective material bases of toxicity alleviation to realgar (As2S2) were Dahuang (Rhei Radix et Rhizoma), Huangqin (Scutellariae Radix), Jiegeng (Platycodonis Radix) and Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), which regulated energy metabolism, choline metabolism, amino acid metabolism and gut flora disorder affected by realgar (As2S2) exposure.

UPLC Q-TOF/MS-Based Metabolic Profiling of Urine Reveals the Novel Antipyretic Mechanisms of Qingkailing Injection in a Rat Model of Yeast-Induced Pyrexia

Fever is one of the most common clinical symptoms of many diseases. Qingkailing (QKL) injection is widely used in China as a clinical emergency medicine due to its good antipyretic effects. It is a herbal formula which is composed by eight kinds of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). As a kind of typical multiple constituents and multiple actions of TCM, it is very difficult to elaborate the antipyretic mechanism by conventional pharmacological method. Metabonomics technique provides beneficial tool for this challenge. In this study, an ultra performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC Q-TOF/MS) metabonomics method was developed to explore the changing process of biochemical substances in rats of yeast-induced pyrexia. Partial least squares discriminate analysis (PLS-DA) was used to distinguish the normal control group, the pyrexia model group, and the pyrexia model group treated by QKL injection. The potential biomarkers related to pyrexia were confirmed and identified. MetPA was used to find the possible metabolic pathways. The results indicated that the antipyretic effect of QKL injection on yeast-induced pyrexia rats was performed by repairing the perturbed metabolism of amino acids.