Plants traditionally used individually and in combination to treat sexually transmitted infections in northern Maputaland, South Africa: antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity

An inventory and analysis of the medicinal plants of Mozambique

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

A comprehensive checklist and analysis of medicinal plant species and their uses in Mozambique, and a comparison with South Africa provided a more profound understanding of the broad concept of Traditional African Medicine as a healing culture and the need for a more informative classification system.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study was aimed at recording all medicinal plants reported in Mozambique according to literature and answer four main questions. 1. How many medicinal plant species have been recorded for Mozambique? Of those, how many are indigenous to Mozambique, and how many are introduced or cultivated exotics? 2. What are the main medicinal uses in Mozambique and which species are used for which ailments? 3. What are the similarities and differences between the medicinal floras of Mozambique and South Africa - are the same species used for the same ailments and is there evidence of cultural exchange? 4. Do the data provide new insights into Traditional African Medicine as one of the oldest medicine systems in the world?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature survey was done to compile the medicinal checklist of Mozambique using 29 available literature sources, which were found from published books, journal articles, reports, unpublished theses, dissertations, and online databases.

RESULTS

A total of 731 medicinal plant species and infraspecific taxa from 447 genera and 120 families was recorded for Mozambique. Of these, 590 (81%) are indigenous, and 87 are non-indigenous (50 naturalised and 37 cultivated exotics). Of the 731 medicinal plant species, 494 (68%) are also used medicinally in South Africa and 148 (30%) are used for the same or similar ailments. Many of the shared taxa and uses have been recorded in the adjoining KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, which has similar vegetation types.

CONCLUSION

The similarity between Mozambique and South Africa (and especially the KwaZulu-Natal Province) not only suggest an exchange of traditional knowledge but also indicates the existence of a hitherto unnamed medicinal system of the southern and eastern African Bantu-speaking cultures that is in need of detailed comparative studies.

Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of the genus Sarcophyte: a review

Although medicinal plants have been used by ethnic communities since ancient times to prevent and treat various diseases, only a few have been scientifically documented. Therefore, due to their rare availability and lack of comprehensive scientific information, we reviewed the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of plants within the genus Sarcophyte. To do this, we used specific search terms and phrases to retrieve relevant information from online sources published in English from 2000 to July 2023. The results showed that there are only two plants in the genus Sarcophyte (Sarcophyte sanguinea Sparrm. and Sarcophyte piriei Hutch.), which are traditionally used to treat a wide range of diseases, especially cancer, and skin, gastrointestinal, and urinogenital tract ailments in humans, and to cure animals in ethnoveterinary practices. It was noted that 13 secondary metabolites have been isolated from the two plants, the most prominent of which are flavonoids (diinsininol, diinsinin, and naringenin). The antioxidant activity of S. piriei is reported based on the scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (IC50: 4.26 ± 0.22 μg/mL) and 2 -2'-Azino-di-[3-ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate (ABTS) radicals (IC50: 4.62 ± 0.14 μg/mL), chelating iron (IC50: 1.82 ± 0.01 μg/mL, 3.50 ± 0.09 μg/mL), and nitric oxide (IC50: 9.97 ± 0.88 μg/mL, 9.09 ± 0.11 μg/mL). The methanolic stem extracts of S. piriei possess antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio fluvialis, and Enterococcus avium, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.16 to 0.625 mg/mL, and a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 1.25 to 5 mg/mL. Cytotoxic effects of the extracts from the two plant species were also demonstrated. Sarcophyte piriei possesses therapeutic potential as evidenced by the inhibitory effects of the aqueous rhizome extract on edema (1,000 mg/kg) and prostaglandin synthesis (IC50 = 0.2 mg/mL). In addition, diinsininol and diinsinin were isolated from S. sanguinea inhibited prostaglandin synthesis (IC50: 9.20 µM, 13.14 µM) and platelet-activating factor-induced exocytosis. Therefore, based on this review, further scientific research is needed to demystify the links between traditional medicinal uses, various secondary metabolites, and the pharmacology of the two plants.

An Inventory of South African Medicinal Plants Used in the Management of Sexually Transmitted and Related Opportunistic Infections: An Appraisal and Some Scientific Evidence (1990-2020)

The current work is aimed at generating the first inventory of South African medicinal plants used in the treatment of sexually transmitted and related opportunistic infections associated with HIV-AIDS. This is important in assisting researchers to access a list of plant species to evaluate for potential phytocompounds, as this area of research is greatly lagging in South Africa. A total of 335 medicinal plants from 103 families have been documented in the current work. The most represented families are Fabaceae (11.64%) and Asteraceae (6.27%). Herbs constitute 36.53%, trees 32.34%, shrubs 29.04%, climbers 1.80% and parasites 0.30%. It is worrying that on the plant parts used, the roots constitute 47.18%, while leaves and stem bark yield 16.62 and 15.01%, respectively. Catharanthus roseus exhibited the highest number of citations (19), while Peltophorum africanum had 14 and both Carica papaya and Vachelia karoo had 12. In the mode of administration of the reported medicinal plant species, most of the plants are boiled and taken orally (48.22%), while other plant species are used as mouth washes (3.25%). Although there is reasonable in vitro activity of some of the plant species, validating the relevance of use, there is still a need to explore the mode of action of such plant species; isolated compounds and possible derivatives thereof are of paramount importance and need to be explored as well. Furthermore, toxicological aspects of such plant species need to be explored.

Ethnobotany and Toxicity Status of Medicinal Plants with Cosmeceutical Relevance from Eastern Cape, South Africa

The indigenous people of the Eastern Cape residing within the richest plant biodiversity in the world, including Africa’s floral ‘gold mine’, have a long history of plant use for skincare. However, such rich flora comes with numerous plants that have the potential to cause harm to humans through their usage. Therefore, the study was aimed at documenting the toxicity status of important medicinal plants used by the indigenous people from the Eastern Cape for skincare and supported by literature for cosmeceutical relevance. A list of plants used for skincare was produced following an ethnobotanical survey. In addition, data on the level of toxicity and cosmeceutical relevance of plants listed from the survey were collected from literature resources. The study listed a total of 38 plants from 25 plant families, the majority being represented by the Asphodelaceae and Asteraceae, both at 13.2%. The most preferred plant parts were the leaves (60.4%) indicating sustainable harvesting practices by the community. The literature reports validated 70% of the medicinal plants surveyed for skincare were nontoxic. Most of the plants can be incorporated in the formulation of products intended for skincare due to their low toxicity and high cosmeceutical relevance.

Traditionally used polyherbals in a southern African therapeutic context

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In African traditional medicine, there are several plant species that are used in combination with either other plant species or non-plant derived combinations such as sugar and honey, salt and vinegar, milk, fat etc. This review examines the role of these combinations and postulates the scientific and therapeutic validation of such combinations.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study reviewed the ethnopharmacological literature and documented the use of southern African plant combinations to find a scientific rationale for such combinations, and provide recommendations for future studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical books and online databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed and Google Scholar were used to find ethnobotanical studies within the southern African context that focus on the combinations of plants with other plants or various additional ingredients. The scientific literature was examined to determine if evidence was available to substantiate such combinations.

RESULTS

One hundred and eighty-seven medicinal plant (plant-to-plant) combinations that are used in the southern African traditional healing system were recorded. These plant combinations were used against infections of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and skin as well other non-infectious diseases such as reproductive and psychiatric disorders. Respiratory infections were the most documented infections to be treated using plant combinations. The plant that was documented to be most commonly used in combination with other plants was Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. While plant-plant combinations have drawn a marked interest, comparatively, plant-adjuvant (e.g. milk, sugar, honey, salt, vinegar, fats) combinations have attracted less research interest. Milk was reported as the most used additional ingredient in combination with medicinal plants. The combination of animal urine and dung with medicinal plants has been reported as a treatment for treat prostate infections, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Other ingredients such as clay and flour were also documented, and these are often mixed with medicinal plants to treat fever, stomach ailments, sexually transmitted infections (STI) and skin conditions. Although combination therapy has been frequently reported in ethnobotanical records, over 90% of the combinations reviewed still need to be scientifically validated.

CONCLUSION

Scientific reports on the antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and other pharmacological effects of these combinations may offer an understanding of traditional combination therapy. In addition, investigation into the mechanisms of action of these combinations are also recommended to supplement the findings. Nonetheless, the use of plant combinations is still an untapped research area in southern Africa and there is a need to validate the use of those documented combinations to obtain a better understanding of combined traditional medicinal plant use.

Characterization and Toxicity of Hypoxoside Capped Silver Nanoparticles

The reducing potential of plant extracts in the green synthesis of nanoparticles has been associated with their phytochemicals. Although pharmacologically inactive, a norlignan diglucoside “hypoxoside” (HP) occurs in large quantities in the extract of Hypoxis hemerocallidea (HE). In this work, HP was isolated from HE where both were used in the biosynthesis of the corresponding silver nanoparticles (HP-AgNPs and HE-AgNPs). The AgNPs were fully characterized using various physicochemical techniques and their antimicrobial and anticancer properties were evaluated. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed sizes of 24.3 ± 4 nm for the HE-AgNPs and 3.9 ± 1.6 nm for the HP-AgNPs. The HE-AgNPs demonstrated enhanced anti-bactericidal effects on Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 1.95 µg/mL, competing well with the standard drug. The cytotoxic activity showed that the HE-AgNPs reduced cell viability with an IC50 of 0.81 and 4.0 µg/mL, respectively, for the U87 and U251 cells, while the HP-AgNPs displayed 0.20 and 0.55 µg/mL for both cell lines, respectively. Furthermore, while the HE-AgNPs were selective to U87 alone, the HP-AgNPs were selective to both glioblastoma cells tested. The study demonstrated the ability of a single phytoconstituent (hypoxoside), not only as the chief bioreductant in the extract, but also as a standalone reducing and capping agent, producing ultra-small, spherical, and monodispersed AgNPs with enhanced biological properties.

In Vitro Antileishmanial and Antischistosomal Activities of Anemonin Isolated from the Fresh Leaves of Ranunculus multifidus Forsk

Leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis are neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) infecting the world’s poorest populations. Effectiveness of the current antileishmanial and antischistosomal therapies are significantly declining, which calls for an urgent need of new effective and safe drugs. In Ethiopia fresh leaves of Ranunculus multifidus Forsk. are traditionally used for the treatment of various ailments including leishmaniasis and eradication of intestinal worms. In the current study, anemonin isolated from the fresh leaves of R. multifidus was assessed for its in vitro antileishmanial and antischistosomal activities. Anemonin was isolated from the hydro-distilled extract of the leaves of R. multifidus. Antileishmanial activity was assessed on clinical isolates of the promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania aethiopica and L. donovani clinical isolates. Resazurin reduction assay was used to determine antipromastigote activity, while macrophages were employed for antiamastigote and cytotoxicity assays. Antischistosomal assays were performed against adult Schistosoma mansoni and newly transformed schistosomules (NTS). Anemonin displayed significant antileishmanial activity with IC₅₀ values of 1.33 nM and 1.58 nM against promastigotes and 1.24 nM and 1.91 nM against amastigotes of L. aethiopica and L. donovani, respectively. It also showed moderate activity against adult S. mansoni and NTS (49% activity against adult S. mansoni at 10 µM and 41% activity against NTS at 1 µM). The results obtained in this investigation indicate that anemonin has the potential to be used as a template for designing novel antileishmanial and antischistosomal pharmacophores.

In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Leaf Extracts and a Major Compound Isolated from Ranunculus multifidus Forsk

The leaves of Ranunculus multifidus Forsk. are traditionally used for the treatment of malaria in several African countries. In the present study, 80% methanol (RM-M) and hydrodistilled (RM-H) extracts of fresh leaves from R. multifidus and its major constituent anemonin were tested for their in vivo antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei in mice. Anemonin was also tested for its in vitro antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. abscessus in a microbroth dilution assay, and bacterial growth was analyzed by OD measurement. The isolation of anemonin from RM-H was carried out using preparative thin layer chromatography (PTLC). The chemical structures of anemonin and its hydrolysis product were elucidated using spectroscopic methods (HR–MS; 1D and 2D-NMR). Results of the study revealed that both RM-M and RM-H were active against P. berghei in mice, although the latter demonstrated superior activity (p < 0.001), as compared to the former. At a dose of 35.00 mg/kg/day, RM-H demonstrated a chemosuppression value of 70% in a 4-day suppressive test. In a 4-day suppressive, Rane’s and prophylactic antimalarial tests, anemonin showed median effective doses (ED₅₀s) of 2.17, 2.78 and 2.70 μM, respectively. However, anemonin did not inhibit the growth of M. smegmatis and M. abscessus.

Bioactive Compounds as Potential Agents for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Management: A Review to Explore Molecular Mechanisms of Action

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are produced by pathogens like bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, and may generate severe health problems such as cancer, ulcers, and even problems in the newborn. This narrative review aims to present updated information about the use of natural bioactive compounds for the prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. A search of the literature was performed using databases and search engines such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Science Direct. From the pharmacotherapeutic management point of view, any strategies for prevention should contain medical approaches. The bioactive compounds obtained from natural products have shown biological effects against different microorganisms for the treatment of these diseases. The main results showed antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, antifungal and antiviral effects such as HIV. Also, the molecular mechanisms, signalling pathways and action targets of natural compounds were highlighted, thus justifying bacterial and antifungal inhibition, apoptosis or reduction of viral replication. From the data of our study, we can conclude that natural compounds may be a significant source for adjuvant drugs / complementary therapies in the treatment of STDs. With all these benefits, the future must conduct extensive clinical trials and the development of pharmaceutical nanotechnologies for a greater therapeutic effect.

Plants Used for the Traditional Management of Cancer in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa: A Review of Ethnobotanical Surveys, Ethnopharmacological Studies and Active Phytochemicals

Cancer occurrence is rapidly increasing all over the world, including in developing countries. The current trend in cancer management requires the use of herbal remedies since the majority of anticancer drugs are known to be costly, with unwanted side effects. In the Eastern Cape province, the use of medicinal plants for cancer management has been climbing steadily over the past two decades due to their cultural belief, low cost, efficacy, and safety claims. With the aim of identifying some potential anticancer plants for probable drug development, this study was undertaken to review plants reported by ethnobotanical surveys in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa for the traditional management of cancer. Information regarding plants used for cancer management in the Eastern Cape province was obtained from multidisciplinary databases and ethnobotanical books. About 24 plant species belonging to twenty families have been reported to be used for the traditional management of cancer in the Eastern Cape province. Among the anticancer plant species, only 16 species have been explored scientifically for their anticancer activities. This review authenticated the use of anticancer plant species in the Eastern Cape province and, therefore, identified several promising unexplored species for further scientific evaluation.

A review study on the anti-trichomonas activities of medicinal plants

The parasitic diseases represent the most important health risk, especially in underdeveloped countries where they have a deep impact on public health. Trichomoniasis is a prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted disease, and a significant amount of new cases are identified each year globally. Furthermore, the infection is linked with serious concerns such as pregnancy outcomes, infertility, predisposition to cervical and prostate cancer, and increased transmission and acquisition of HIV. The therapy is restricted, adverse effects are often observed, and resistance to the drugs is emerging. Based on this, a new treatment for trichomoniasis is necessary. Natural products represent a rich source of bioactive compounds, and even today, they are used in the search for new drugs. Additionally, natural products provide a wide variety of leadership structures that can be used by the pharmaceutical industry as a template in the development of new drugs that are more effective and have fewer or no undesirable side effects compared to current treatments. This review focuses on the medicinal plants that possess anti-trichomonal activity in vitro or in vivo. An electronic database search was carried out covering the last three decades, i.e., 1990-2020. The literature search revealed that almost a dozen isolated phytoconstituents are being explored globally for their anti-trichomonal activity. Simultaneously, many countries have their own traditional or folk medicine for trichomoniasis that utilizes their native plants, as a whole, or even extracts. This review focuses mainly on the human parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. However, at some points mention is also made to Tritrichomonas foetus that causes trichomoniasis in animals of high veterinary and economical interest. We will focus on the plants and plant-based compounds and their anti-trichomonal activity. The literature search highlighted that there are abundant compounds that possess anti-trichomonal activity; however, in-depth in-vivo evaluation of compounds and their clinical evaluation has not been undertaken. There is a critical need for new anti-trichomonal compounds, and focused research on phytoconstituents can provide the way forward.

A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of fungal skin infections

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Human dermatophyte infections are one of the most common classes of infection globally, with an estimated 1.7 billion people contracting at least one infection annually. Southern African ethnic groups used multiple plants to treat dermatophytosis and to alleviate the symptoms, yet the anti-dermatophyte properties of most species remain poorly explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study aimed to critically review the literature to document southern African plant species used to treat one or more dermatophytic infections, and to summarise scientific evaluations of these and other plant species. Our study aims to stimulate and focus future studies in this field.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A thorough review of the ethnobotanical books, reviews and primary scientific studies were undertaken to identify southern African plants used traditionally to treat dermatophytosis, thereby identifying gaps in the research requiring further study.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine southern African plant species are recorded as traditional therapies for dermatophytosis. Scientific evaluations of 140 plant species were identified, although most of the species in those studies were selected for reasons apart from their traditional uses. None of those studies examined the mechanism of action of the plant species, and only a single study screened the extracts for toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite southern Africa having some of the longest continuous human civilisations globally, as well as unique and diverse flora, and good ethnobotanical records, the anti-dermatophyte properties of southern African medicinal plants remains relatively poorly explored. The efficacy of the majority of plants used traditionally to treat fungal skin disease are yet to be verified and substantial further research is required in this field.

Review: Southern African medicinal plants used as blood purifiers

ETHNOPHARMALOGICAL RELEVANCE

Blood purification practices, also referred to as blood cleansing or detoxification, is an ancient concept which is widespread amongst African traditional medicine, but for which no modern scientific basis exists. There prevails considerable ambiguity in defining what a blood purifier is.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this review is to firstly define what a blood purifier is in the context of African traditional medicine and compare to other cultural and westernized interpretations. Thereafter, this study identifies traditionally used medicinal plants used as blood purifiers in southern Africa and correlates these species to scientific studies, which may support evidence for these "blood purifying plant species".

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical books and review articles were used to identify medicinal plants used for blood purification. Databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed and Google Scholar were used to source scientific articles. An evaluation was made to try correlate traditional use to scientific value of the plant species.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty nine plant species have been documented as traditional remedies for blood purification. Most of the plant species have some pharmacological activity, however, very little link to the traditional use for blood purification. There has been some justification of the link between blood purification and the use as an antimicrobial and this has been explored in many of the plant species identified as blood purifiers. Other pharmacological studies specifically pertaining to the blood require further attention.

CONCLUSION

Irrespective of the ambiguity of interpretation, medicinal plants used to "cleanse the blood", play an important holistic role in traditional medicine and this review with recommendations for further study provides some value of exploring this theme in the future.

Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of selected medicinal plants against pathogens causing sexually transmitted infections

Introduction: Worldwide, more than one million sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are acquired daily. The diversity and frequency of sexual infections caused by pathogenic microorganisms have increased thus becoming a major cause of illness and mortality amongst young adults. Medicinal plants have been good remedies for the treatment of STIs since ancient times. In this study, we evaluated antimicrobial, anti- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and anti-inflammatory activities of five selected medicinal plants. Methods: We determined the antimicrobial activities of plant extracts against the bacteria causing common STIs. Then, the anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated by measuring the inhibition of the pro-inflammatory enzyme, 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX) and we further investigated the plants extracts of anti-HIV activities against the recombinant HIV-1 enzyme, reverse transcriptase. Results: Methanol extract of Terminalia sericea and dichloromethane (DCM) extract of Bidens pilosa exhibited good activities against Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Gardnerella vaginalis. Ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol extracts of Bidens pilosa exhibited good activities against Candida albicans. Ethyl acetate extract of K. africana and methanol extract of B. pilosa showed good anti-inflammatory activities. Ethyl acetate, DCM and methanol extracts of T. sericea exhibited promising anti-HIV-1 activities by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase whilst methanol extracts of T. dregeana showed low anti-HIV-1 activity. Conclusion: These plants showed promising activity against the propagation of inflammation, displayed good antimicrobial activities against the bacteria causing STIs and could be used as potential leads and/or source for new drug candidates.

Albizia Adianthifolia: Botany, Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties

The bark, leaves, and roots of Albizia adianthifolia are highly sought after in tropical Africa as herbal medicines. Therefore, the aim of this study was to review the botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of A. adianthifolia so as to provide baseline data required for evaluating the therapeutic potential of the species. Information on the botanical profile, medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of A. adianthifolia was undertaken using databases such as ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Google Scholar, Medline, SCOPUS, EThOS, ProQuest, OATD, and Open-thesis. Preelectronic literature search of conference papers, scientific articles, books, book chapters, dissertations, and theses was carried out at the University library. Literature search revealed that A. adianthifolia is used as purgative and herbal medicine for diabetes, eye problems, gastrointestinal problems, haemorrhoids, headache, neurodegenerative disorders, reproductive problems in women, respiratory problems, wounds and pain, skin diseases, sexually transmitted infections, and ethnoveterinary medicine. Phytochemical compounds identified from the species include apocarotenoids, chalcone, dipeptide, elliptosides, essential oils, fatty acids, flavonoids, histamine, imidazolyl carboxylic acid, prosapogenins, steroids, triterpene saponins, and triterpenoids. Pharmacological studies revealed that A. adianthifolia extracts and compounds have acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibitory, anthelmintic, antiamoebic, antibacterial, antimycobacterial, anti-sexually transmitted infections, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anxiolytic, and antidepressant, cognitive-enhancing, haemolytic, hypoglycemic and antihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory, and cytotoxicity activities. Detailed studies on the pharmacokinetics, in vivo, and clinical research involving compounds isolated from A. adianthifolia and extracts of the species are required.

A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of selected parasite infections affecting humans

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Worldwide, more than three billion cases of parasitic disease are reported yearly and it is likely that this figure is substantially under-estimated. Approximately one in six people globally are estimated to be infected with at least one parasite species annually. In South Africa, the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium (bilharzia) and intestinal worms and helminths are particularly high, especially in children and in crowded or poorer rural communities with inadequate sanitation and nutrition. Despite alarmingly high estimates, medical research into parasitic diseases remains neglected and only malaria receives significant attention and funding. Traditional medicines have been used for centuries in Africa by multiple ethnic groups and many people rely on these healing systems as their primary healthcare modality. The traditional use of South African medicinal plants to treat parasite infestations is relatively well documented, and it is important to link these traditional uses to scientific evidence validating efficacy.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document the medicinal plants used for parasitic infections and critically review the literature on the anti-parasitic properties of South African plants against some neglected parasitic diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A review of the literature (ethnobotanical books and publications documenting traditional plant use) was undertaken related to specific medicinal use for parasitic infections in Southern Africa. Inclusion criteria focused on human use. Exclusion criteria included veterinary use and malaria due to the extensive nature of these subject matters. An in-depth analysis of previous studies was undertaken and future prospectives are considered.

RESULTS

In particular, bilharzia, gastrointestinal worms and helminths, ectoparasites, trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are reviewed with special emphasis on the gaps in research.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the availability of relatively extensive ethnobotanical records on the anti-parasitic properties of southern African medicinal plants, the antiparasitic properties of many plants have been poorly examined. There was in many instances a lack of evidence to support traditional use of many species towards some parasites and research is urgently needed in this area.

Syzygium Cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss: An Overview of Its Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties

Syzygium cordatum is a valuable medicinal plant in the materia medica of east and southern Africa. The aim of this study was to review the botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacological properties of S. cordatum. Relevant literature search was carried out using internet sources such as ACS, Web of Science, Wiley, SpringerLink, Scopus, Mendeley, Google Scholar, Pubmed, SciFinder, BioMed Central, Science Direct and Elsevier. Other literature sources were conference papers, book chapters, books, theses and websites. The leaves, roots, bark and fruits of S. cordatum are used as ethnomedicines against 24 human diseases such as gastro-intestinal disorders, burns, sores, wounds, colds, cough, respiratory complaints, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), tuberculosis, fever and malaria. Several phytochemical compounds including alkaloids, anthocyanidin, essential oils, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanidin, phenols, phytosterols, saponins, simple sugars, terpenoids and triterpenoid have been identified from S. cordatum. Pharmacological evaluations revealed that S. cordatum is characterized by several biological activities including antibacterial, antifungal, antidiarrheal, anti-sexually transmitted infections, antidiabetic, anticholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, antileishmanial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial and anti-proteus. These pharmacological findings lend credence to the traditional ethnomedicinal uses and ethnopharmacological importance of S. cordatum. Future research on the species should identify the biological compounds, their mode of action and physiological pathways and clinical relevance.

An in vitro investigation of indigenous South African medicinal plants used to treat oral infections

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Over a 120 South African medicinal plants are used for the treatment of oral diseases. Despite the vast collection of antimicrobial studies being done on South African plants, there is still limited research on pathogens associated with oral infections. In consultation with the available ethnobotanical literature, this study investigates the antimicrobial efficacy of some South African medicinal plants against oral pathogens.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide a detailed account of the antimicrobial properties of selected South African medicinal plants used traditionally to treat oral infections. The effect on Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation and the toxicity profiles of these plants are also investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 136 aqueous and organic extracts and six essential oils were prepared from 31 different plant species. These plant samples were screened for antimicrobial efficacy against nine oral pathogens using the micro-titre plate dilution assay. Plant extracts that were found to have noteworthy antimicrobial activity against S. mutans were further evaluated on the effect on S. mutans biofilm formation using the glass slide technique. The toxicity profiles of plant samples that were found to have noteworthy antimicrobial activity were evaluated using the brine shrimp lethality assay.

RESULTS

The organic extract of Cissampelos torulosa stems displayed the lowest MIC value of 0.05mg/mL against both Lactobacillus spp. This high antimicrobial activity was also observed with the organic extract of Spirostachys africana leaves against Candida albicans. In some instances, a direct relationship was found between the traditional use of the plant and the antimicrobial activity observed. For example, noteworthy activity (MIC < 1.00mg/mL) was observed against all three Candida spp. when tested against Clematis brachiata (leaves), a plant traditionally used to treat oral thrush. Englerophytum magalismonatanum stems displayed notable activity against both Streptococcus spp. (MIC 0.83mg/mL against S. mutans and MIC 0.67mg/mL against S. sanguis). Spirostachys africana leaves displayed the greatest anti-adherent properties against S. mutans biofilm formation at both 24 and 48h, reducing the biofilm by 97.56% and 86.58% respectively. The majority of plant samples tested in the brine shrimp lethality assay (BSLA) were considered safe, however, 13 plant samples were considered toxic, at a concentration of 1mg/mL.

CONCLUSION

Noteworthy antimicrobial activity for plants species such as C. brachiata and E. magalismonatnum provides validation for the traditional use of these plants. Spirostachys africana displayed the greatest reduction of adherent S. mutans cells. The BSLA results revealed that the majority of the plant samples were not toxic in nature. The findings from the results favour the potential use of these plants in treating oral diseases such as dental caries, periodontal diseases and oral thrush.

Antimicrobial natural product research: A review from a South African perspective for the years 2009-2016

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This review provides information on the antimicrobial research which has taken place on South African natural products for the last eight years (2009-2016). This important field is the backbone of all studies involving the use of medicinal plants against infectious diseases and hence can form the mainstay for future studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All publications within the years 2009-2016 were considered. Exclusion criteria were studies not involving South African medicinal natural products and those publications where full articles could not be accessed. An overview of the most common experimental methods used and new advances in terms of antimicrobial investigations are provided. Disease categories selected for further investigation were skin and wounds, respiratory, gastrointestinal, sexually transmitted and ophthalmic infections amongst others. Alternate natural products and combinations studies were also included.

RESULTS

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was the most commonly used experimental method to determine antimicrobial activity. Staphylococcus aureus was the most commonly tested skin pathogen and Klebsiella pneumoniae was the most common pathogen implicated in respiratory disorders. Only 20% of gastrointestinal studies included commonly implicated pathogens such as Shigella flexneri and Campylobacter species.

CONCLUSION

Multidisciplinary studies have emerged as a strong support for antimicrobial investigations and show the importance of including toxicity when studying antimicrobial efficacy. Alternate approaches (for example biofilms and quorum sensing) at examining antimicrobial effects are encouraged. Studies on resistant strains require more insight and future recommendations should look at consistent dosing and investigations on compound interactions amongst others.

Plants used to treat skin diseases in northern Maputaland, South Africa: antimicrobial activity and in vitro permeability studies

CONTEXT

Ethnobotanical claims of medicinal plants used in northern Maputaland are limited. Objectives To establish scientific validity for a selection of the plants used in Maputaland to treat skin diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aqueous and dichloromethane-methanol extracts were prepared from 37 plant species which were collected from four rural communities in Maputaland. Antimicrobial screening was performed on extracts against 12 dermatological relevant pathogens using the micro-titre plate dilution assay. Their combined effect was evaluated by determining the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentrations (ΣFICs). Chemical analysis was undertaken using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and investigated in vitro across excised intact porcine skin using the ILC07 automated system.

RESULTS

The organic extract of Garcinia livingstonei T. Anderson (Clusiaceae) was found to be the most antimicrobially active displaying an average broad-spectrum MIC value of 270 μg/mL. The combination of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hotsch. (Anacardaceae) with Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex C. Krauss (Myrtaceae) displayed synergistic effects. The four antimicrobially active organic extracts were found to possess mainly anthraquinones, flavonoids, tannins and saponins. The organic extracts of Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (Bignoniaceae) and S. cordatum were found to have more compounds capable of permeating intact skin after 10 min of exposure.

CONCLUSION

More than 80% of the organic extracts tested displayed a correlation between the antimicrobial efficacy and the reported traditional uses of the plants. Furthermore, the traditional use of topically applied plant preparations is validated as some compounds from the active plants are capable of permeating the skin in vitro.

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. (Sausage tree): Phytochemistry and pharmacological review of a quintessential African traditional medicinal plant

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kigelia africana is a quintessential African herbal medicinal plant with a pan-African distribution and immense indigenous medicinal and non-medicinal applications. The plant is use traditionally as a remedy for numerous disease such as use wounds healing, rheumatism, psoriasis, diarrhea and stomach ailments. It is also use as an aphrodisiac and for skin care.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present review aims to compile an up-to-date review of the progress made in the continuous pharmacological and phytochemistry investigation of K. africana and the corresponding commercial and pharmaceutical application of these findings with the ultimate objective of providing a guide for future research on this plant.

METHOD

The scholarly information needed for this paper were predominantly sourced from the electronic search engines such as Google, Google scholar; publishing sites such as Elsevier, scienceDirect, BMC, PubMed; other scientific database sites for chemicals such as ChemSpider, PubChem, and also from online books.

RESULTS

Pharmacological investigations conducted confirm the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant and anticancer activity of the extract of different parts of the plant. Bioactive constituents are found to be present in all parts of the plant. So far, approximately 150 compounds have been characterized from different part of the plant. Iridoids, naphthoquinones, flavonoids, terpenes and phenylethanoglycosides are the major class of compounds isolated. Novel compounds with potent antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer effect such as verbascoside, verminoside and pinnatal among others, have been identified. Commercial trade of K. africana has boosted in the las few decades. Its effect in the maintenance of skin has been recognized resulting in a handful of skin formulations in the market.

CONCLUSIONS

The pharmaceutical potentials of K. africana has been recognized and have witness a surge in research interest. However, till date, many of its traditional medicinal uses has not been investigated scientifically. Further probing of the existential researches on its pharmacological activity is recommended with the end-goal of unravelling the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, clinical relevance and possible toxicity and side effects of both the extract and the active ingredients isolated.

Ximenia caffra Sond. (Ximeniaceae) in sub-Saharan Africa: A synthesis and review of its medicinal potential

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ximenia caffra Sond. (Ximeniaceae), commonly known as "sour plum" is traditionally used, both topically and orally to treat a wide range of human diseases and ailments such as wounds, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), infertility, stomach ache, fever, eye problems, diarrhoea, bilharzia, menorrhagia, malaria, intestinal worms, impotence and coughs. The bark and fruits are used by small-scale farmers as ethnoveterinary medicine to treat dermatophilosis, foot rot, saddle sores and control ectoparasites. Oil from X. caffra seed is traditionally used as a moisturiser, soap and shampoo for dry, fragile and damaged hair.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this study was to comprehensively summarize the research that has been done on the botany, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of X. caffra in different locations throughout its geographical range in the sub-Saharan African region so as to understand its importance and potential in primary healthcare systems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was carried out using a comprehensive and systematic literature search on the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of the species throughout its distributional range. Literature sources included papers published in international journals, reports from international, regional and national organizations, conference papers, books and theses. PubMed and Scopus, search engines such as Google Scholar and online collection ScienceDirect were used.

RESULTS

This study showed that X. caffra is used as traditional medicine in 83.3% of the countries in tropical Africa where it is indigenous. A total of 65 human and animal ailments and diseases are recorded for X. caffra, with a high degree of consensus for wounds, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), infertility, stomach ache, fever, eye problems, diarrhoea, bilharzia, menorrhagia, malaria, intestinal worms and coughs. Phytochemical investigation of X. caffra revealed that the species has various compounds including flavonoids, phenols, phytosterols, tannins and fatty acids. Different plant parts, aqueous and organic extracts exhibited anti-amoebic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antiproliferative, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitory, insecticidal, non-mutagenic and toxicity activities.

CONCLUSION

In this review, the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicity of different extracts and compounds of X. caffra have been summarized. Although many of the ethnomedicinal uses of X. caffra have been validated by phytochemical and pharmacological studies, there are still some gaps where current knowledge could be improved. There are very few to nil experimental animal studies, randomized clinical trials and target-organ toxicity studies involving X. caffra and its derivatives that have been carried out so far. At the present moment, there is not sufficient evidence to interpret the specific chemical mechanisms associated with some of the documented biological activities of the species. Therefore, future studies should identify the bioactive components, details of the molecular modes or mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and physiological pathways for specific bioactives of X. caffra.

An ethnobotanical study of plants used to treat liver diseases in the Maritime region of Togo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Togo, many persons still rely on plants for healing, however very little is known about the medicinal practices of the indigenous people. The present study aimed to document the medicinal plant utilization for the management of liver diseases in the Maritime region of the country.

METHODOLOGY

This was an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the Maritime region of Togo from June to August 2015. The data were gathered from 104 traditional healers (TH) by direct interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. The calculated use values (UV) were used to analyze the importance of the cited plants.

RESULTS

A total of 99 plant species belonging to 88 genera and 49 families were cited by the TH as curing the hepatic diseases. The most represented families were Caesalpiniaceae with 8 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 7 species, Apocynaceae and Asteraceae with 6 species each. The highest UV were recorded with Gomphrena celosioides (0.13), Xylopia ethiopica (0.12), Senna occidentalis (0.12), Bridelia ferruginea (0.12), Cymbopogon citratus (0.12), Kigellia Africana (0.09), Cassia sieberiana (0.08) and Sanseviera liberica (0.08), showing their importance in the management of liver dysfunction in the surveyed region. The main used parts were the leaves, followed by the roots, the whole plant, the rhizome and the bark, accounting for more than 10% each. The herbal medicines were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and administrated by oral route.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that Maritime region of Togo has an important plant biodiversity that is exploited by the indigenous TH. However, some plants cited by the TH have not been studied for their possible hepatoprotective effects. These plants are therefore a starting point for biological screenings.

Bacterial Vaginosis Biofilms: Challenges to Current Therapies and Emerging Solutions

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most common genital tract infection in women during their reproductive years and it has been associated with serious health complications, such as preterm delivery and acquisition or transmission of several sexually transmitted agents. BV is characterized by a reduction of beneficial lactobacilli and a significant increase in number of anaerobic bacteria, including Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae, Mobiluncus spp., Bacteroides spp. and Prevotella spp.. Being polymicrobial in nature, BV etiology remains unclear. However, it is certain that BV involves the presence of a thick vaginal multi-species biofilm, where G. vaginalis is the predominant species. Similar to what happens in many other biofilm-related infections, standard antibiotics, like metronidazole, are unable to fully eradicate the vaginal biofilm, which can explain the high recurrence rates of BV. Furthermore, antibiotic therapy can also cause a negative impact on the healthy vaginal microflora. These issues sparked the interest in developing alternative therapeutic strategies. This review provides a quick synopsis of the currently approved and available antibiotics for BV treatment while presenting an overview of novel strategies that are being explored for the treatment of this disorder, with special focus on natural compounds that are able to overcome biofilm-associated antibiotic resistance.

Medicinal plants used by Burundian traditional healers for the treatment of microbial diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Infectious diseases represent a serious and worldwide public health problem. They lead to high mortality, especially in non-developed countries. In Burundi, the most frequent infectious diseases are skin and respiratory (mainly in children) infections, diarrhea, added to malaria, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. Local population used mostly traditional herbal medicines, sometimes animal and mineral substances, to fight against these plagues.

OBJECTIVES

To survey in different markets and herbal shops in Bujumbura city, medicinal plants sold to treat microbial infections, with particular emphasis on the different practices of traditional healers (THs) regarding plant parts used, methods of preparation and administration, dosage and treatment duration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethnobotanical survey was conducted by interviewing, using a pre-set questionnaire, sixty representative healers, belonging to different associations of THs approved and recognised by the Ministry of Health. Each interviewed herbalist also participated in the collection of samples and the determination of the common names of plants. The plausibility of recorded uses has been verified through an extensive literature search.

RESULTS

Our informants enabled us to collect 155 different plant species, distributed in 51 families and 139 genera. The most represented families were Asteraceae (20 genera and 25 species), Fabaceae (14 genera and 16 species), Lamiaceae (12 genera and 15 species), Rubiaceae (9 genera and 9 species), Solanaceae (6 genera and 6 species) and Euphorbiaceae (5 genera and 6 families). These plants have been cited to treat 25 different alleged symptoms of microbial diseases through 271 multi-herbal recipes (MUHRs) and 60 mono-herbal recipes (MOHRs). Platostoma rotundifolium (Briq.) A. J. Paton (Lamiaceae), the most cited species, has been reported in the composition of 41 MUHRs, followed by Virectaria major (Schum.) Verdc (Rubiaceae, 39 recipes), Kalanchoe crenata (Andrews) Haw. (Crassulaceae, 37 recipes), Stomatanthes africanus (Oliv. & Hiern) R. M. King & H. Rob. (35 recipes), and Helichrysum congolanum Schltr. & O. Hoffm. (Asteraceae, 33 recipes). Regarding MOHRs, Pentas longiflora Oliv. (Rubiaceae) is the most important species with 19 recipes, followed by Kalanchoe crenata (Andrews) Haw. (Crassulaceae, 10 recipes), Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. (Celastraceae, 9 recipes), Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd (Lamiaceae, 8 recipes) and Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae, 6 recipes). Concerning the preparation and administration of recipes, our informants state to be able to adjust the doses based on the patient's age (child or adult) and/or his/her physiology (e.g. pregnancy).

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that medicinal plants are still widely used for the treatment of microbial diseases in Bujumbura city. However, there is much to do in this area, especially in the assessment and monitoring of the quality, effectiveness and safety of the different recipes preconised by Burundian traditional healers.

Tradition in treating taboo: Folkloric medicinal wisdom of the aboriginals of Purulia district, West Bengal, India against sexual, gynaecological and related disorders

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In order to explore the traditional medicine practised by the ethnic communities residing in the topographically and climatically challenged Purulia, an underprivileged district of West Bengal, India, a quantitative ethnobiological approach was adopted to document the folkloric use of ethnomedicinals against different sexual, gynaecological and related ailments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobiological surveys were conducted during 2012-2015 by interviewing 82 informants or traditional healers with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire. The survey included questions on botanical and non-botanical ingredients and additives mixed with monoherbal and polyherbal formulations, vernacular names of the plants and animals, methods of preparation and administration and restrictions during medications. Additional quantitative indices such as use value, informant׳s consensus factor and fidelity level were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty eight sexual and gynaecological disorders were found to be treated with 18 monoherbal and 31 polyherbal formulations consisting of a total number of 96 plant species from 86 genera and 47 families and four animal species. A variety of additives, either botanicals or non-botanicals were used with the formulations for higher efficacy and taste enhancement. Fabaceae (16 species) was found to be the most common family of medicinal plants whereas herbs (42.7%) and roots (32%) were the most common habit type and plant part used respectively. Use value, informant׳s consensus factor and fidelity level indicate frequency and coherence of citations.

CONCLUSION

Age old belief on traditional medicine prevails in the studied area due to its efficacy, inexpensive price and the remoteness of tribal villages from conventional medical centres. Traditional healers had detailed knowledge of preparations, doses, methods of administration, restrictions during medications, safety and efficacy of using folkloric therapeutics against sexual and gynaecological disorders. Possible synergistic interactions among phytochemicals and additives were indicated to explain enhanced therapeutic efficacy of mixed herbal formulations.

Chemical constituents of Euonymus fortunei

A new flavonol glycoside, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-(2-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-glucopyranosyl-7-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside (1), along with eleven known compounds including five flavonol glycosides (2-6), one phenolic glycoside (7), two megastigmane glycosides (8 and 9), two triterpenoids (10 and 11) and one alditol (12), was isolated from the aerial parts of Euonymus fortunei. Their structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic analysis and chemical evidence. Compounds 2-4, 7, 8, and 10-12 were evaluated their antimicrobial activities against Ureaplasma urealyticumin vitro, but all tested compounds have no useful activities against Ureaplasma urealyticum.

Natural and synthetic compound anti-Trichomonas vaginalis: an update review

Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellate protozoan that causes trichomonosis, a sexually transmitted disease of worldwide importance. However, the infection has long received much less attention than other parasitic and sexually transmitted diseases. This negligence leads to poor diagnosis and underestimated prevalence values, and consequently, it has been associated to increasing acquisition and transmission of HIV, pregnancy outcomes, infertility, pelvic inflammatory disease, and cervical and prostate cancer. In view of increased resistance to drugs belonging to the nitroimidazole class, new treatment alternatives are urgently needed. Natural products provide an immeasurable wealth of active molecules, and a great number of new drugs have been originated from these compounds. In addition, new synthetic products or derivatives from old drugs also provide an alternative to treat trichomonosis. Albeit many studies have been performed with natural products against T. vaginalis, none of them progressed to clinical trials. Overall, inadequate financial investments are made, and no alternative treatment for trichomonosis has been discovered; meanwhile, hundreds of thousands of people will remain infected and suffering the serious consequences of this nonviral STD. Thus, it is highlighted that clinical trials for better understanding the potential in vitro are necessary and urgent in order to furnish a new therapeutic alternative for trichomonosis treatment. The current review attempts to give an overview on the potential of natural and synthetic products as antitrichomonal.

Anti-biofilm activity of Marula - a study with the standardized bark extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea; family - Anacardiaceae) is an African plant, which enjoys wide socio-economic importance particularly in southern part of Africa. The fruits are consumed as food and also as alcoholic beverage (cream liquor). In different parts of Africa, the decoction of the bark is traditionally used for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhoea, and various other infectious conditions. The aim of the study was to investigate the anti-biofilm properties of the methanol extract of Marula bark (stem bark of Sclerocarya birrea), with a view towards combating the emergence of antimicrobial resistance often associated with bacterial biofilms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The standardized methanol extract was initially tested for its antimicrobial property. The crystal violet assay was used for evaluating anti-biofilm (biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeuginosa) activity. Further in order to study the mechanism of anti-biofilm activity, the same was evaluated for understanding its role on various quorums sensing mediated phenomenon (swarming motility assay, protease and pyoverdin assay) that are known to be associated with the formation of biofilms and pathogenicity.

RESULTS

The methanol extract showed no inhibition of bacterial growth up to a concentration of 200 µg/ml. Interestingly, the sample produced anti-biofilm activity (around 75% decrease; 100 µg/ml) at sub-lethal concentration. Further it also significantly reduced the QS mediated swarming motility. The release of various virulent factors (protease and pyoverdin) was found to be lowered when pre-treated with the extract.

CONCLUSION

The present study illustrates the anti-biofilm property Sclerocarya birrea. The standardized extract significantly disrupted the quorum sensing mediated production of biofilm formation and also inhibited swarming ability of the cells. The extract displayed a regulatory role on the secretion of protease and pyoverdin, two QS dependent pathogenic factors found in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This study also validates the ethnobotanical use of Marula.