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Cheng Z, Zheng Q, Duan Y, Cai M, Zhang H. Effect of subcritical water temperature on the structure, antioxidant activity and immune activity of polysaccharides from Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 261:129591. [PMID: 38272429 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the polysaccharide from Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin extracted by hot water (HW-GP) was further physically modified with subcritical water to obtain novel polysaccharides (SW-GP). Comparative analysis was conducted to examine the disparities in conformation and bioactivity between HW-GP and SW-GP, aiming to precisely regulate the structure of the polysaccharides and enhance their bioactivity by controlling subcritical water temperature. The results showed that, compared with HW-GP, subcritical water modification (100-160 °C) not only significantly reduced the molecular weight of polysaccharides (from 5.586 × 105 g/mol to 1.484 × 105 g/mol), but also modulated the intermolecular interaction forces, which maintain the conformation of the polysaccharides, including electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, thereby dynamically transforming the polysaccharide chain conformation from triple helix to random coil, and the strength of the chain conformation shifted from rigid to flexible. In addition, the modification of the SW-GP structure by subcritical water also enhanced its biological activity. SW-GP (140 °C) with low molecular weight and semi-rigid triple helix conformation showed the best scavenging effect on the DPPH, ABTS, and hydroxyl radicals, and exhibited excellent antioxidant activity. SW-GP (130 °C) with medium molecular weight and semi-rigid triple helix conformation significantly promoted the proliferation and phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells, as well as increased the release levels of NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, and the immunomodulatory activity was much higher than that of other polysaccharides. These findings confirmed the feasibility of using subcritical water temperature as a regulatory feature for the structure and bioactivity of glycyrrhiza polysaccharides, which may have reference significance for the modification of polysaccharides with heightened bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zirun Cheng
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Qiao Zheng
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Yuqing Duan
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Institute of Food Physical Processing, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
| | - Meihong Cai
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Haihui Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
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Structural Characteristics of Polysaccharide GP2a in Gardenia jasminoides and Its Immunomodulatory Effect on Macrophages. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911279. [PMID: 36232580 PMCID: PMC9569544 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we elucidated the structural characteristics of a polysaccharide isolated from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (labeled as GP2a) and its immunomodulatory activity. GP2a is an acidic polysaccharide with a molecular weight of 44.8 kDa, mostly comprising galacturonic acid. Methylation analysis revealed 4-GalpA (74.8%) to be the major sugar residue in GP2a. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis indicated that its main chain comprised →4)-α-D-GalpA-6-OMe-(1→4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→ and →4)-α-D-GalpA-6-OMe-(1→2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→, with galactan and arabinans linked to the C-4 position of →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→ residue as branched chains. Furthermore, GP2a showed no obvious toxicity to macrophages (RAW 264.7) while enhancing cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Compared with untreated cells, nitric oxide production and secretion of cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor, in GP2a-treated cells significantly increased after 48 h. At 300 µg/mL GP2a concentration, there was no significant difference in the cytokine levels in GP2a- and lipopolysaccharide-treated cells (the positive control). In summary, GP2a is a pectic polysaccharide with homogalacturonan and rhamnogalacturonan-I structural regions in the main chain. Based on its immunomodulatory effects in vitro, GP2a may have potential uses in functional food and medicine.
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Yue F, Xu J, Zhang S, Hu X, Wang X, Lü X. Structural features and anticancer mechanisms of pectic polysaccharides: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:825-839. [PMID: 35447258 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The anticancer activity of pectic polysaccharides (PPs) was proved by numerous studies, and which also indicated that the bioactivity of PPs was closely related to its complicated structures. Based on the summary and analysis about structure characteristics and corresponding enzymatic process of the reported PPs, the anticancer mechanism and related structural features were systematically clarified. It was found that not only the direct effects on the cancer cells by proliferation inhibition or apoptosis, but also the regulation of immune system, gut microbiota and gut metabolism as indirect effects, jointly played important roles in the anticancer of PPs. Nevertheless, during the study of PPs as promising anticancer components, the exact structure-function relationship, digestion process in vivo, and comprehensive action mechanism are still not well understanding. With the unveiling of the proposed issues, it is believed that PPs are promising to be exploited as effective cancer therapy/adjunctive therapy drugs or functional foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Yue
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiaxin Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sitan Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xinyu Hu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xin Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Xin Lü
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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Chen R, Xu J, Wu W, Wen Y, Lu S, El-Seedi HR, Zhao C. Structure–immunomodulatory activity relationships of dietary polysaccharides. Curr Res Food Sci 2022; 5:1330-1341. [PMID: 36082139 PMCID: PMC9445227 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2022.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Polysaccharides are usually composed of more than ten monosaccharide units, which are connected by linear or branched glycosidic bonds. The immunomodulatory effect of natural polysaccharides is one of the most important bioactive function. In this review, molecular weight, monosaccharide (including galactose, mannose, rhamnogalacturonan-I arabinogalactan and uronic acid), functional groups (namely sulfate, selenium, and acetyl groups), types of glycoside bond connection (including β-1,3-D-glucosyl, α-1,4-D-glucosyl, β-1,4-D-glucosyl, α-1,6-D-glucosyl, β-1,4-D-mannosyl, and β-1,4-D-Xylopyranosyl), conformation and the branching degrees are systematically identified as their contribution to the immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharides. At present, studies on the structure-activity relationships of polysaccharides are limited due to their low purity and high heterogeneity. However, it is an important step in providing useful guidance for dietary supplements with polysaccharides. The chemical structures and the process of immune responses induced are necessary to be discussed. Polysaccharides may bind with the cell surface receptors to modulate immune responses. This review mainly discusses the structure-activity relationship of dietary polysaccharides. Structure - activity relationships of polysaccharides with immune-enhancing effect are proposed. Polysaccharides with the higher molecular weight are helpful to improve immunity. Higer galactose, mannose, rhamnogalacturonan-I, arabinogalacta,n and uronic acid contents have immunoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoxin Chen
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Jingxiang Xu
- School of Basic Medicine, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, 341000, China
| | - Weihao Wu
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Yuxi Wen
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Suyue Lu
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Hesham R. El-Seedi
- Pharmacognosy Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Biomedical Centre, Box 574, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
- International Research Center for Food Nutrition and Safety, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory of Intelligent Agriculture and Agri-Products Processing, Jiangsu Education Department, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Chao Zhao
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
- Corresponding author.No.15 Shangxiadian Rd, Fuzhou, 350002, China
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Kumar M, Tomar M, Saurabh V, Sasi M, Punia S, Potkule J, Maheshwari C, Changan S, Radha, Bhushan B, Singh S, Anitha T, Alajil O, Satankar V, Dhumal S, Amarowicz R, Kaur C, Sharifi-Rad J, Kennedy JF. Delineating the inherent functional descriptors and biofunctionalities of pectic polysaccharides. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 269:118319. [PMID: 34294331 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pectin is a plant-based heteropolysaccharide macromolecule predominantly found in the cell wall of plants. Pectin is commercially extracted from apple pomace, citrus peels and sugar beet pulp and is widely used in the food industry as a stabilizer, emulsifier, encapsulant, and gelling agent. This review highlights various parameters considered important for describing the inherent properties and biofunctionalities of pectins in food systems. These inherent descriptors include monosaccharide composition, galacturonic acid content, degree of esterification, molecular weight, structural morphology, functional group analysis, and functional properties, such as water and oil holding capacity, emulsification, foaming capacity, foam stability, and viscosity. In this study, we also delineate their potential as a nutraceutical, prebiotic, and carrier for bioactive compounds. The biofunctionalities of pectin as an anticancer, antioxidant, lipid-lowering, and antidiabetic agent are also conceptually elaborated in the current review. The multidimensional characteristics of pectin make it a potential candidate for use in food and biomedical science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar
- Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR-Central institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai 400019, India.
| | - Maharishi Tomar
- Seed Technology Division, ICAR - Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, India
| | - Vivek Saurabh
- Division of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Minnu Sasi
- Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 10012, India
| | - Sneh Punia
- Department of Food, Nutrition and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Jayashree Potkule
- Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division, ICAR-Central institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Chirag Maheshwari
- Department of Agriculture Energy and Power, ICAR - Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, India
| | - Sushil Changan
- Division of Crop Physiology, Biochemistry and Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla 171001, India
| | - Radha
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan 173229, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Bharat Bhushan
- ICAR - Indian Institute of Maize Research, PAU Campus, Ludhiana, Punjab 141 004, India
| | - Surinder Singh
- Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - T Anitha
- Department of Postharvest Technology, Horticultural College and Research Institute, Periyakulam 625604, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Omar Alajil
- Division of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Varsha Satankar
- Ginning Training Centre, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Nagpur 440023, India
| | - Sangram Dhumal
- Division of Horticulture, RCSM College of Agriculture, Kolhapur 416004, Maharashtra, India.
| | - Ryszard Amarowicz
- Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Charanjit Kaur
- Division of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India.
| | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Phytochemistry Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - J F Kennedy
- Chembiotech Laboratories, Advanced Science and Technology Institute, Kyrewood House, Tenbury Wells, Worcs WR15 8FF, UK
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Fang J, Wang Z, Wang P, Wang M. Extraction, structure and bioactivities of the polysaccharides from Ginkgo biloba: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 162:1897-1905. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.08.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Zaitseva O, Khudyakov A, Sergushkina M, Solomina O, Polezhaeva T. Pectins as a universal medicine. Fitoterapia 2020; 146:104676. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2020.104676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Wang T, Dong Z, Zhou D, Sun K, Zhao Y, Wang B, Chen Y. Structure and immunostimulating activity of a galactofuranose-rich polysaccharide from the bamboo parasite medicinal fungus Shiraia bambusicola. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 257:112833. [PMID: 32289476 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.112833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Shiraia bambusicola is a parasitic fungus on the twigs of bamboos. Its relatively large stroma has high medicinal value and can treat a variety of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, cold stomach pain, sciatica, injuries, chronic bronchitis, and infantile. It is widely distributed in many provinces in Southern China and also is also found in Japan. AIM OF THE STUDY Medicinal fungi were important resources for bioactive polysaccharides. To explore bioactive polysaccharides from Shiraia bambusicola, a heteropolysaccharide SB2-1 was purified and obtained from S. bambusicola and its immunostimulating activity was researched. MATERIALS AND METHODS The polysaccharide from S. bambusicola was extracted and purified using enzyme assisted extraction, ethanol precipitation, anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Molecular weight of polysaccharide was estimated by high performance gel permeation chromatography. Monosaccharide compositions were determined by high performance liquid chromatography after pre-column derivatization and UV detection. Structure information was elucidated by IR spectrum, GC-MS analysis after methylation and gradual acid hydrolysis of the polysaccharide. The RAW264.7 cells were used to study the immunostimulating activity in vitro. RESULTS Physicochemical and structural analyses showed that SB2-1 was a neutral heteropolysaccharide with molecular weight at 22.2 kDa and consisted of glucose, galactose and mannose at a ratio of 2.0:1.5:1.0. The structure of SB2-1 was a branched polysaccharides composed of a mannan core and side chains consisted of glucose and galactose. The mannan core was composed of (1→2)-Manp as the main chain. Glucose with (1→4)-D-Glcp, (1→2)-D-Glcp and (1→6)-D-Glcp at different degrees of polymerization were linked at C-6 and C-3 of the (1→2)-Manp as the side chains. The galactose with the linages of (1→6)-D-Galf, →2)-D-Galf(1→ and terminal D-Galf(1→ also existed in the side chain. The study on the immunostimulating activities of SB2-1 and its core structure P-2 were investigated on RAW264.7 macrophages. The results showed that SB2-1 could activate RAW264.7 macrophage and significantly improve its phagocytic ability by neutral red uptake experiment. Meanwhile, SB2-1 increased significantly higher inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) production and the productions of IL-1, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α. The effect of SB2-1 was better than its core structure P-2 produced by gradual acid hydrolysis, which meant the side chains played an important role in the immunostimulating activities. CONCLUSIONS The investigation demonstrated that the galactofuranose-containing mannogalactoglucan was characteristic polysaccharides in S. bambusicola and could enhance the activation of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng Wang
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhe Dong
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Dejian Zhou
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Kunlai Sun
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuqin Zhao
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Wang
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yin Chen
- College of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China; Zhejiang Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Biomedical Products, 1 South Haida Road, Zhoushan, 316000, People's Republic of China.
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Baien SH, Seele J, Henneck T, Freibrodt C, Szura G, Moubasher H, Nau R, Brogden G, Mörgelin M, Singh M, Kietzmann M, von Köckritz-Blickwede M, de Buhr N. Antimicrobial and Immunomodulatory Effect of Gum Arabic on Human and Bovine Granulocytes Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Front Immunol 2020; 10:3119. [PMID: 32082302 PMCID: PMC7005937 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.03119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Gum arabic (GA) is a traditional herbal medicine from Acacia Senegal (L.) Willdenow trees, which consist of a complex mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins. It is used in daily applications for several diseases and is considered to protect against bacterial infections. The detailed mechanisms behind these observations are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the direct antibacterial activity of GA water and ethanol extracts against Staphylococcus (S.) aureus or Escherichia (E.) coli and the immunomodulating properties of those extracts on granulocytes as a first line of defense against bacteria. Firstly, the direct antimicrobial effect of GA was tested on three different S. aureus strains and two E. coli strains. The growth of bacteria was analyzed in the presence of different GA concentrations over time. GA water as well as ethanol extracts showed a significant growth inhibition in a concentration-dependent manner in the case of S. aureus Newman, S. aureus Rd5, and E. coli 25922, but not in the case of S. aureus USA300 and E. coli K1. Transmission electron microscopic analysis confirmed an antibacterial effect of GA on the bacteria. Secondly, the immunomodulatory effect of GA on the antimicrobial activity of bovine or human blood-derived granulocytes was evaluated. Interestingly, water and ethanol extracts enhanced antimicrobial activity of granulocytes by the induction of intracellular ROS production. In line with these data, GA increased the phagocytosis rate of E. coli. No effect was seen on neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation that mediates killing of extracellular bacteria such as S. aureus. In conclusion, we show that GA exhibits a direct antibacterial effect against some S. aureus and E. coli strains. Furthermore, GA boosts the antimicrobial activities of granulocytes and increases intracellular ROS production, which may lead to more phagocytosis and intracellular killing. These data might explain the described putative antimicrobial activity of GA used in traditional medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shima Hassan Baien
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Jana Seele
- Department of Geriatrics, Evangelisches Krankenhaus Göttingen-Weende, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Timo Henneck
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Christin Freibrodt
- Department of Geriatrics, Evangelisches Krankenhaus Göttingen-Weende, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - György Szura
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Hani Moubasher
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Roland Nau
- Department of Geriatrics, Evangelisches Krankenhaus Göttingen-Weende, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Graham Brogden
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | | | - Mahavir Singh
- LIONEX Diagnostics and Therapeutics, GmbH, Brunswick, Germany
| | - Manfred Kietzmann
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Maren von Köckritz-Blickwede
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Nicole de Buhr
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
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Wu D, Zheng J, Mao G, Hu W, Ye X, Linhardt RJ, Chen S. Rethinking the impact of RG-I mainly from fruits and vegetables on dietary health. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:2938-2960. [PMID: 31607142 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1672037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) pectin is composed of backbone of repeating disaccharide units →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→ and neutral sugar side-chains mainly consisting of arabinose and galactose having variable types of linkages. However, since traditional pectin extraction methods damages the RG-I structure, the characteristics and health effects of RG-I remains unclear. Recently, many studies have focused on RG-I, which is often more active than the homogalacturonan (HG) portion of pectic polysaccharides. In food products, RG-I is common to fruits and vegetables and possesses many health benefits. This timely and comprehensive review describes the many different facets of RG-I, including its dietary sources, history, metabolism and potential functionalities, all of which have been compiled to establish a platform for taking full advantage of the functional value of RG-I pectin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Wu
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiaqi Zheng
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guizhu Mao
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weiwei Hu
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xingqian Ye
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Shiguo Chen
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Affiliation(s)
- Clinton G. L. Veale
- School of Chemistry and Physics University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus Private Bag X01 Scottsville 3209 South Africa
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12
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Immunomodulatory effect of natural and modified Citrus pectin on cytokine levels in the spleen of BALB/c mice. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 121:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.09.189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Minzanova ST, Mironov VF, Arkhipova DM, Khabibullina AV, Mironova LG, Zakirova YM, Milyukov VA. Biological Activity and Pharmacological Application of Pectic Polysaccharides: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E1407. [PMID: 30961332 PMCID: PMC6401843 DOI: 10.3390/polym10121407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pectin is a polymer with a core of alternating α-1,4-linked d-galacturonic acid and α-1,2-l-rhamnose units, as well as a variety of neutral sugars such as arabinose, galactose, and lesser amounts of other sugars. Currently, native pectins have been compared to modified ones due to the development of natural medicines and health products. In this review, the results of a study of the bioactivity of pectic polysaccharides, including its various pharmacological applications, such as its immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antibacterial, antioxidant and antitumor activities, have been summarized. The potential of pectins to contribute to the enhancement of drug delivery systems has been observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salima T Minzanova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
| | - Vladimir F Mironov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
| | - Daria M Arkhipova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
| | - Anna V Khabibullina
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
| | - Lubov G Mironova
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
| | - Yulia M Zakirova
- Kazan (Volga region) Federal University, Kazan University, KFU, Kazan 420008, Russia.
| | - Vasili A Milyukov
- Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, FRC Kazan Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, Kazan 420088, Russia.
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DI W, ZHANG YC, YI HX, HAN X, WANG SM, ZHANG LW. Research Methods for Structural Analysis of Lactic Acid Bacteria Induced Exopolysaccharides. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(18)61091-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Smith C. Natural antioxidants in prevention of accelerated ageing: a departure from conventional paradigms required. J Physiol Biochem 2018. [PMID: 29541947 DOI: 10.1007/s13105-018-0621-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The modern lifestyle is characterised by various factors that cause accelerating ageing by the upregulation of oxidative stress and inflammation-two processes that are inextricably linked in an endless circle of self-propagation. Inflammation in particular is commonly accepted as aetiological factor in many chronic disease states, such as obesity, diabetes and depression. In terms of disease prevention or treatment, interventions aimed at changing dietary and/or exercise habits have had limited success in practise, mostly due to poor long-term compliance. Furthermore, other primary stimuli responsible for eliciting an oxidative stress or inflammatory response-e.g. psychological stress and anxiety-cannot always be easily addressed. Thus, preventive medicine aimed at countering the oxidative stress and/or inflammatory responses has become of interest. Especially in developing countries, such as South Africa, the option of development of effective strategies from plants warrants further investigation. A brief overview of the most relevant and promising South African plants which have been identified in the context of inflammation, oxidative stress and chronic disease is provided here. In addition, and more specifically, our group and others have shown considerable beneficial effects across many models, after treatment with products derived from grapes. Of particular interest, specific cellular mechanisms have been identified as therapeutic targets of grape-derived polyphenols in the context of inflammation and oxidative stress. The depth of these studies afforded some additional insights, related to methodological considerations pertaining to animal vs. human models in natural product research, which may address the current tendency for generally poor translation of positive animal model results into human in vivo models. The importance of considering individual data vs. group averages in this context is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Smith
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
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Polysaccharides from the South African medicinal plant Artemisia afra : Structure and activity studies. Fitoterapia 2018; 124:182-187. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2017.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Sergeant CA, Africander D, Swart P, Swart AC. Sutherlandia frutescens modulates adrenal hormone biosynthesis, acts as a selective glucocorticoid receptor agonist (SEGRA) and displays anti-mineralocorticoid properties. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2017; 202:290-301. [PMID: 28323049 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Sutherlandia frutescens is a traditional African medicinal plant used in the treatment of stress and anxiety, while also exhibiting anti-inflammatory properties. AIM OF STUDY The study aimed at linking anti-stress and anti-inflammatory properties of S. frutescens to its influence on glucocorticoid biosynthesis and the inflammatory response via steroid receptor interaction. MATERIALS AND METHODS The influence of S. frutescens extracts and sutherlandioside B (SUB),10 and 30µM, on key steroidogenic enzymes was assayed in COS-1 cells. Effects were also assayed on basal and stimulated hormone levels in the adrenal H295R cell model. Agonist activity for transactivation and transrepression of the extract and SUB with the glucocorticoid- (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) was subsequently investigated. RESULTS Inhibitory effects of the extract towards progesterone conversion by CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 were significant. SUB inhibited CYP17A1 and 3β-HSD2, while not affecting CYP21A2. In H295R cells, SUB decreased cortisol and androgen precursors significantly. The extract decreased total steroid production (basal and stimulated) with cortisol and its precursor, deoxycortisol, together with mineralocorticoid metabolites significantly decreased under forskolin stimulated conditions. S. frutescens extracts and SUB repressed NF-κB-driven gene expression without activating GRE-driven gene expression and while neither activated MR mediated gene transcription, both antagonized the effects of aldosterone via the MR. CONCLUSION Data provide evidence linking anti-stress, anti-inflammatory and anti-hypertensive properties of S. frutescens to inhibition of steroidogenic enzymes and modulation of adrenal hormone biosynthesis. Findings suggesting S. frutescens and SUB exhibit dissociated glucocorticoid characteristics underline potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of inflammation and hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Sergeant
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - D Africander
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - P Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - A C Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
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Lei W, Browning JD, Eichen PA, Folk WR, Sun GY, Lubahn DB, Fritsche KL. An Investigation into the Immunomodulatory Activities of Sutherlandia frutescens in Healthy Mice. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160994. [PMID: 27575007 PMCID: PMC5004858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sutherlandia frutescens is a medicinal plant that has been traditionally used in southern Africa for cancers, infections, and inflammatory conditions. We recently published experiments demonstrating that an aqueous extract of S. frutescens possessed potent immune-stimulatory activity. This work was carried out with murine macrophages, an immune cell type that plays a pivotal role in host defense from infection and in shaping host inflammatory and immune responses. Here, we conducted a series of follow-up experiments to explore the impact of consuming S. frutescens on host response to bacterial challenge using healthy mice. We found that feeding mice a diet containing S. frutescens failed to significantly alter host response to systemic infection by either a gram-positive or gram-negative bacterium (i.e., L. monocytogenes and E. coli, respectively). In contrast to the in vitro observations, we found no evidence that S. frutescens consumption stimulated in vivo inflammatory responses; instead, consumption of S. frutescens tended to diminish in vivo inflammatory responses. Several possible reasons for this are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lei
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Jimmy D. Browning
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Peggy A. Eichen
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - William R. Folk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Grace Y. Sun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Dennis B. Lubahn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Kevin L. Fritsche
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Lei W, Browning JD, Eichen PA, Lu CH, Mossine VV, Rottinghaus GE, Folk WR, Sun GY, Lubahn DB, Fritsche KL. Immuno-stimulatory activity of a polysaccharide-enriched fraction of Sutherlandia frutescens occurs by the toll-like receptor-4 signaling pathway. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2015; 172:247-253. [PMID: 26096188 PMCID: PMC4523454 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R. Br. is an indigenous plant of southern Africa that has been traditionally used for various cancers, infections, and inflammatory conditions. AIM OF THE STUDY Our aim was to investigate the potential immuno-stimulatory activity of a polysaccharide-enriched fraction (SFPS) from a decoction of S. frutescens. MATERIALS AND METHODS RAW 264.7 cells (a murine macrophage cell line) were used to determine the activities of SFPS on macrophage function. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and inflammatory cytokines were evaluated in the cells treated with or without SFPS. CLI-095, a toll-like receptor (TLR) 4-specific inhibitor, was used to identify whether or not SFPS exerts its effects through TLR4. An antagonist of endotoxin, polymyxin B, was used to evaluate whether endotoxin present in SFPS contributed to its immune-stimulatory activity. RESULTS SFPS exhibited potent immune-stimulatory activity by macrophages. The production of ROS, NO, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) were increased upon exposure to SFPS in a dose-dependent manner. All of these activities were completely blocked by co-treatment with CLI-095, but only partially diminished by polymyxin B. CONCLUSION We demonstrate for the first time potent immune-stimulatory activity in a decoction prepared from S. frutescens. We believe that this immune stimulatory activity is due, in part, to the action of polysaccharides present in the decoction that acts by way of TLR4 receptors and the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling pathway. These findings provide a plausible mechanism through which we can understand some of the medicinal properties of S. frutescens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lei
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Jimmy D Browning
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Peggy A Eichen
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Chi-Hua Lu
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Valeri V Mossine
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - George E Rottinghaus
- Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - William R Folk
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Grace Y Sun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Dennis B Lubahn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Kevin L Fritsche
- Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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Immunomodulating pectins from root bark, stem bark, and leaves of the Malian medicinal tree Terminalia macroptera, structure activity relations. Carbohydr Res 2015; 403:167-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Wu JS, Liu Y, Shi R, Lu X, Ma YM, Cheng NN. Effects of combinations of Xiexin decoction constituents on diabetic nephropathy in rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2014; 157:126-133. [PMID: 25278183 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Xiexin decoction (XXD) has been used as a treatment for diabetes mellitus for more than 1300 years. XXD constituents with protective effects against diabetic nephropathy (DN) include Rhizoma Coptidis alkaloids (RA), Radix et Rhizoma Rhei polysaccharides (RP), and Radix Scutellaria flavones (RF). The aim of the study is to investigate the effects of combinations of RA, RP, and RF on DN and their mechanisms of action. MATERIALS AND METHODS In vitro, high glucose-induced rat mesangial cells were treated with RA, RP, RF, and combinations thereof. Cell proliferation and levels of inflammatory factors were measured. In vivo, high-fat diet and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats were treated with different combinations of RA, RP, and RF once per day for 12 weeks. Blood and urine biochemical parameters, renal tissue morphology, and inflammation were investigated. RESULTS In vitro, the combination of the three groups of components inhibited mesangial cell proliferation and reduced the levels of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and collagen IV. The effects of the three constituent groups in combination were stronger than those of each group alone or combinations of two groups. In diabetic rats, combinations of the three groups of herb components ameliorated blood glucose, urinary albumin excretion and decreased renal mesangial matrix expansion and basement membrane thickening. In addition, the combinations reduced renal tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) protein levels, down-regulated the expression of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), and up-regulated the expression of inhibitor of nuclear factor κB (IκB) protein. Among the three groups of herb components, RA produced the strongest effects, followed by RP, and then by RF. CONCLUSIONS The combination of the three groups of herb components produced anti-DN effects through inhibition of inflammation mediated by NF-κB. Among the three groups of herb components, RA produced the strongest effect while RP and RF produced weaker effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Sheng Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rong Shi
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiong Lu
- Experiment Center for Science and Technology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue-Ming Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Neng-Neng Cheng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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Zou YF, Chen XF, Malterud KE, Rise F, Barsett H, Inngjerdingen KT, Michaelsen TE, Paulsen BS. Structural features and complement fixing activity of polysaccharides from Codonopsis pilosula Nannf. var. modesta L.T.Shen roots. Carbohydr Polym 2014; 113:420-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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