Documentation and quantitative analysis of local ethnozoological knowledge among traditional healers of Theni district, Tamil Nadu, India

What is the state of the art on traditional medicine interventions for zoonotic diseases in the Indian subcontinent? A scoping review of the peer-reviewed evidence base

BACKGROUND

Traditional medicine (TM) interventions are plausible therapeutic alternatives to conventional medical interventions against emerging and endemic zoonotic diseases, particularly in low-and middle-income countries that may lack resources and infrastructure. Despite the growing popularity in the usage of TM interventions, their clinical safety and effectiveness are still contested within conventional healthcare in many countries.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review of the peer-reviewed literature that synthesises and maps the evidence on TM interventions for the treatment and prevention of zoonoses on the Indian subcontinent. The region, a global hotspot of biodiversity and emerging infections, is characterised by high prevalence of TM use. Based on the scientific literature (mostly case study research, n=l06 studies), our review (1) maps the scope of the literature, (2) synthesises the evidence on the application of TM interventions for zoonoses, and (3) critically reflects on the state of TM and identifies areas for future research focus.

RESULTS

The evidence synthesis confirmed widespread usage of TM interventions for zoonoses on the subcontinent, with the majority of research reported from India (n=99 studies, 93.4%), followed by Pakistan (n=3 studies, 2.8%), Bangladesh (n=2 studies, 1.9%), and Sri Lanka (n=1, 0.9%). Most of the reviewed studies reported on ethno-medicinal uses of plant species, primarily for treating dengue (n=20 studies), tuberculosis (n=18 studies), Escherichia coli infection (n=16 studies), lymphatic filariasis and cholera (n=9 apiece). However, the evidence on the safety and effectiveness of these reported TM interventions is limited, indicating that these data are rarely collected and/or shared within the peer-reviewed literature.

CONCLUSION

This review thus highlights that, whilst TMs are already being used and could offer more widely accessible interventions against emerging and endemic zoonoses and ectoparasites, there is an urgent need for rigorous clinical testing and validation of the safety and effectiveness of these interventions.

Targeting chemokine-receptor mediated molecular signaling by ethnopharmacological approaches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Infection and inflammation are critical to global human health status and the goal of current pharmacological interventions intends formulating medications/preventives as a measure to deal with this situation. Chemokines and their cognate receptors are major regulatory molecules in many of these ailments. Natural products have been a keen source to the drug development industry, every year contributing significantly to the growing list of FDA approved drugs. A multiverse of natural resource is employed as a part of curative regimen in folk/traditional/ethnomedicine which can be employed to discover, repurpose, and design potent medications for the diseases of clinical concern.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to systematically document the ethnopharmacologically active agents targeting the infectious-inflammatory diseases through the chemokine-receptor nexus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Articles related to chemokine/receptor modulating ethnopharmacological anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious natural sources, bioactive compounds, and formulations have been examined with special emphasis on women related diseases. The available literature has been thoroughly scrutinized for the application of traditional medicines in chemokine associated experimental methods, their regulatory outcomes, and pertinence to women's health wherever applicable. Moreover, the potential traditional regimens under clinical trials have been critically assessed.

RESULTS

A systematic and comprehensive review on the chemokine-receptor targeting ethnopharmaceutics from the available literature has been provided. The article discusses the implication of traditional medicine in the chemokine system dynamics in diverse infectious-inflammatory disorders such as cardiovascular diseases, allergic diseases, inflammatory diseases, neuroinflammation, and cancer. On this note, critical evaluation of the available data surfaced multiple diseases prevalent in women such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, breast cancer, cervical cancer and urinary tract infection. Currently there is no available literature highlighting chemokine-receptor targeting using traditional medicinal approach from women's health perspective. Moreover, despite being potent in vitro and in vivo setups there remains a gap in clinical translation of these formulations, which needs to be strategically and scientifically addressed to pave the way for their successful industrial translation.

CONCLUSIONS

The review provides an optimistic global perspective towards the applicability of ethnopharmacology in chemokine-receptor regulated infectious and inflammatory diseases with special emphasis on ailments prevalent in women, consecutively addressing their current status of clinical translation and future directions.

Ethnopharmacological uses of fauna among the people of central Punjab, Pakistan

Introduction

The utilization of fauna and fauna-based byproducts in ethnomedicinal usages has been a longstanding human activity, practiced across various cultures worldwide. This study focuses on investigating the utilization of animal-based traditional medicine by the people of Pakistan, specifically in the Gujranwala area.

Methods

Data collection took place from January to September 2019 through interviews with local communities. Ethnomedicinal applications of animal products were analyzed using several indices, including Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Relative Popularity Level (RPL), Folk Use Value (FL), and Relative Occurrence Percentage (ROP).

Results

The study identified the use of different body parts of 54 species of animals in treating various diseases and health issues. These include but are not limited to skin infections, sexual problems, pain management (e.g., in the backbone and joints), eyesight issues, immunity enhancement, cold, weakness, burns, smallpox, wounds, poisoning, muscular pain, arthritis, diabetes, fever, epilepsy, allergies, asthma, herpes, ear pain, paralysis, cough, swelling, cancer, bronchitis, girls' maturity, and stomach-related problems. Certain species of fauna were noted by informers with high "frequency of citation" (FC), ranging from 1 to 77. For instance, the black cobra was the most frequently cited animal for eyesight issues (FC = 77), followed by the domestic rabbit for burn treatment (FC = 67), and the Indus Valley spiny-tailed ground lizard for sexual problems (FC = 66). Passer domesticus and Gallus gallus were noted to have the highest ROP value of 99.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide valuable preliminary insights for the conservation of fauna in the Gujranwala region of Punjab, Pakistan. Additionally, screening these animals for medicinally active compounds could potentially lead to the development of novel animal-based medications, contributing to both traditional medicine preservation and modern pharmaceutical advancements.

An Overview of Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Nematoda: Angiostrongylidae), an Emerging Cause of Human Angiostrongylosis on the Indian Subcontinent

Human angiostrongylosis is an emerging zoonosis caused by the larvae of three species of metastrongyloid nematodes of the genus Angiostrongylus, with Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Chen, 1935) being dominant across the world. Its obligatory heteroxenous life cycle includes rats as definitive hosts, mollusks as intermediate hosts, and amphibians and reptiles as paratenic hosts. In humans, the infection manifests as Angiostrongylus eosinophilic meningitis (AEM) or ocular form. Since there is no comprehensive study on the disease in the Indian subcontinent, our study aims at the growing incidence of angiostrongylosis in humans, alongside its clinical course and possible causes. A systematic literature search revealed 28 reports of 45 human cases from 1966 to 2022; eosinophilic meningitis accounted for 33 cases (75.5%), 12 cases were reported as ocular, 1 case was combined, and 1 case was unspecified. The presumed source of infection was reported in 5 cases only. Importantly, 22 AEM patients reported a history of eating raw monitor lizard (Varanus spp.) tissues in the past. As apex predators, monitor lizards accumulate high numbers of L3 responsible for acute illness in humans. For ocular cases, the source was not identified. Most cases were diagnosed based on nematode findings and clinical pathology (primarily eosinophilia in the cerebrospinal fluid). Only two cases were confirmed to be A. cantonensis, one by immunoblot and the other by q-PCR. Cases of angiostrongylosis have been reported in Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Puducherry, Telangana, and West Bengal. With a population of more than 1.4 billion, India is one of the least studied areas for A. cantonensis. It is likely that many cases remain undetected/unreported. Since most cases have been reported from the state of Kerala, further research may focus on this region. Gastropods, amphibians, and reptiles are commonly consumed in India; however, typical preparation methods involve cooking, which kills the nematode larvae. In addition to studying rodent and mollusk hosts, monitor lizards can be used as effective sentinels. Sequence data are urgently needed to answer the question of the identity of Angiostrongylus-like metastrongylid nematodes isolated from all types of hosts. DNA-based diagnostic methods such as q-PCR and LAMP should be included in clinical diagnosis of suspected cases and in studies of genetic diversity and species identity of nematodes tentatively identified as A. cantonensis.

Vernacular Taxonomy, Cultural and Ethnopharmacological Applications of Avian and Mammalian Species in the Vicinity of Ayubia National Park, Himalayan Region

Numerous investigations on plant ethnomedicinal applications have been conducted; however, knowledge about the medicinal use of wild animals is still limited. This present study is the second on the medicinal and cultural meaning of avian and mammalian species used by the population in the surrounding area of the Ayubia National Park, KPK, Pakistan. Interviews and meetings were compiled from the participants (N = 182) of the study area. The relative frequency of citation, fidelity level, relative popularity level, and rank order priority indices were applied to analyze the information. Overall, 137 species of wild avian and mammalian species were documented. Of these, 18 avian and 14 mammalian species were utilized to treat different diseases. The present research showed noteworthy ethno-ornithological and ethno-mammalogical knowledge of local people and their connection with fauna, which might be useful in the sustainable utilization of the biological diversity of the Ayubia National Park, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Furthermore, in vivo and/or in vitro examination of the pharmacological activities of species with the highest fidelity level (FL%) as well as frequency of mention (FM) might be important for investigations on faunal-based new drugs.

Invertebrates and herptiles for livelihoods-ethnozoological use among different ethnic communities in Jammu and Kashmir (Indian Himalayas)

BACKGROUND

Ethnic communities have relied on animals and their derived products for ages, and their use is often intricately related to many cultural features. In remote regions across the globe, indigenous peoples have been using invertebrates and herptiles for a variety of purposes (medicine, food, culture, and spiritual importance); however, related scientific research is sparse, particularly in the western Himalayas. In this respect, we collected useful information on invertebrates and herpetofauna from Jammu and Kashmir, India, across different ethnic groups, i.e., Gujjar, Bakarwal, Dogra, Kashmiri, and Pahari.

METHODOLOGY

The data were gathered using semi-structured interviews followed by group discussions. The information gathered was analyzed using ordination techniques (principal component analysis). The Venn diagram was used to investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences between ethnic groups.

RESULTS

We documented 30 species belonging to five classes and 20 families used for different ethnozoological practices (medicinal, magico-religious, food, costume, omen, poultry, and agricultural purposes). The use of fauna resources varied across ethnic groups, and cross-cultural examination revealed that Kashmiri and Pahari populations were more similar in their species utilization. The maximum number of species (27%) was uniquely used by Kashmiri, followed by Pahari (17%), and the least by Dogra and Gujjar (3% each). The ethnozoological use of all documented species is unprecedented. In addition to ethnozoological usage, various documented species (Apis cerana, Apis mellifera, Hirudinaria granulosa, and Bombyx mori) were also important for the local population's livelihoods.

CONCLUSION

Our findings can be considered the baseline for understanding the relationship of invertebrates and herptiles with specific ethnic groups and will aid in the development of future research projects that can assess the interaction between local fauna and the diverse ethnic groups.

Traditional Uses of Animals in the Himalayan Region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir

Background: The use of animals and animal-derived products in ethnopharmacological applications is an ancient human practice that continues in many regions today. The local people of the Himalayan region harbor rich traditional knowledge used to treat a variety of human ailments. The present study was intended with the aim of examining animal-based traditional medicine utilized by the population of the Himalayan region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Methods: Data were collected from 2017 to 2019 through individual and group interviews. Data on traditional uses of animal products were analyzed, utilizing following indices such as the frequency of citation, use value, relative importance, similarity index, principal component analysis, and cluster analysis to find the highly preferred species in the area.

Results: Ethnomedicinal uses of 62 species of vertebrates and invertebrates were documented. Flesh, fat, bone, whole body, milk, skin, egg, head, feathers, bile, blood, and honey were all used in these applications. The uses of 25 animals are reported here for the first time from the study area (mainly insects and birds, including iconic species like the kalij pheasant, Lophura leucomelanos; Himalayan monal, L. impejanus; and western tragopon, Tragopan melanocephalus). The diversity and range of animal-based medicines utilized in these communities are indications of their strong connections with local ecosystems.

Conclusion: Our results provide baseline data valuable for the conservation of vertebrate and invertebrate diversity in the region of Himalayan of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. It is possible that screening this fauna for medicinally active chemicals could contribute to the development of new animal-based drugs.

Use of Herbal Medicines Among Breastfeeding Mothers in Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: There are limited data on the use of herbal medicines (HM) among breastfeeding mothers, despite the fact that knowledge of the possible benefits or harms of HM use has a direct relationship with the health of infants, especially in resource-limited countries. The study aims to determine the prevalence and factors associated with HM use among breastfeeding mothers in Tanzania. Methods: The study followed a cross-sectional design using a structured survey questionnaire. Survey participants were recruited from the reproductive and child health clinic at Uhuru health center in Morogoro, Tanzania. The survey instrument comprised of 34 questions, including demographic information, the pattern of HM use during breastfeeding, and women's perceptions of HM. Chi-square test and logistic regression were used for data analysis using SPSS ver. 24.0. Results: The majority of the respondents (53.8%) used HM during breastfeeding. The most commonly used HM was black pepper (Piper nigrum L.; 80.0%), followed by pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo L.; 18.0%). About one-third (27.5%) of HM users discussed their use with their healthcare providers. In addition, higher education levels and low breastmilk supply were identified as potential predictors of HM use. Conclusion: The practice of HM use among breastfeeding mothers in Tanzania is popular to ease breastfeeding difficulties. However, the issue of the safety or effectiveness of HM is still an unknown agenda. This awakens the need to evaluate HM's safety, efficacy, and quality through pharmacological studies for scientific evidence. Lastly, a clinical guideline should be developed in healthcare settings to promote open dialogues between the healthcare providers and mothers to ensure the safe use of HM.

Rich yet undocumented ethnozoological practices of socio-culturally diverse indigenous communities of Sikkim Himalaya, India

AIM OF THE STUDY

The indigenous people of Sikkim Himalaya possess indispensable traditional knowledge including the use of flora and fauna due to their close association with nature. The present study aims to explore the rich and undocumented ethnozoological practices of different indigenous communities of the Sikkim Himalaya.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaire interviews among the traditional healers and indigenous communities of Sikkim. A total of 91 respondents covering all four districts of Sikkim were interviewed from September 2017-April 2018.

RESULTS

This study recorded a total of 59 species belonging to nine taxonomic groups used for traditional ethnozoological practices by the indigenous communities of Sikkim. Mammals represented 58% of the total animals followed by birds (22%). Among the total, 71% of animal species were used for zootherapy whereas 29% were used for religious customs or shamanistic practices. Almost 64% species were used for treatment of more than one disease and the chief mode of preparation was by boiling the body parts. Among different parts used in traditional medicine, meat was most preferred while horns and hairs were mostly used for religious purposes.

CONCLUSION

Present findings suggest that traditional medicine including zootherapy still serves as a source of primary healthcare in rural areas of Sikkim and provides an identity to the culture of a region. We recommend documentation of more such traditional medicinal systems along with scientific validation of traditional practices with modern tools. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs), the legally formed bodies at local level, may be entrusted in documentation of such practices which might contribute significantly in the conservation of traditional practices and also preserves the associated traditional knowledge as per the provision of Biological Diversity Act of India.

Anil Kumar N, Sharopov F, Ramírez-Alarcón K, Ruiz-Ortega A, Abdulmajid Ayatollahi S, Valere Tsouh Fokou P, Kobarfard F, Amiruddin Zakaria Z, Iriti M, Taheri Y, Martorell M, Sureda A, N. Setzer W, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Santini A, Capasso R, Adrian Ostrander E, -ur-Rahman A, Iqbal Choudhary M, C. Cho W, Sharifi-Rad J. Antidiabetic Potential of Medicinal Plants and Their Active Components

Diabetes mellitus is one of the major health problems in the world, the incidence and associated mortality are increasing. Inadequate regulation of the blood sugar imposes serious consequences for health. Conventional antidiabetic drugs are effective, however, also with unavoidable side effects. On the other hand, medicinal plants may act as an alternative source of antidiabetic agents. Examples of medicinal plants with antidiabetic potential are described, with focuses on preclinical and clinical studies. The beneficial potential of each plant matrix is given by the combined and concerted action of their profile of biologically active compounds.

A systematic review on black pepper (Piper nigrum L.): from folk uses to pharmacological applications

Considered as the "King of spices", black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a widely used spice which adds flavor of its own to dishes, and also enhances the taste of other ingredients. Piper nigrum has also been extensively explored for its biological properties and its bioactive phyto-compounds. There is, however, no updated compilation of these available data to provide a complete profile of the medicinal aspects of P. nigrum. This study endeavors to systematically review scientific data on the traditional uses, phytochemical composition, and pharmacological properties of P. nigrum. Information was obtained using a combination of keywords via recognized electronic databases (e.g., Science Direct and Google Scholar). Google search was also used. Books and online materials were also considered, and the literature search was restricted to the English language. The country with the highest number of traditional reports of P. nigrum for both human and veterinary medicine was India, mostly for menstrual and ear-nose-throat disorders in human and gastrointestinal disorders in livestock. The seeds and fruits were mostly used, and the preferred mode of preparation was in powdered form, pills or tablets, and paste. Piper nigrum and its bioactive compounds were also found to possess important pharmacological properties. Antimicrobial activity was recorded against a wide range of pathogens via inhibition of biofilm, bacterial efflux pumps, bacterial swarming, and swimming motilities. Studies also reported its antioxidant effects against a series of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species including the scavenging of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, DPPH, ABTS, and reducing effect against ferric and molybdenum (VI). Improvement of antioxidant enzymes in vivo has also been reported. Piper nigrum also exhibited anticancer effect against a number of cell lines from breast, colon, cervical, and prostate through different mechanisms including cytotoxicity, apoptosis, autophagy, and interference with signaling pathways. Its antidiabetic property has also been confirmed in vivo as well as hypolipidemic activity as evidenced by decrease in the level of cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein and increase in high-density lipoprotein. Piper nigrum also has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective effects. The major bioactive compound identified in P. nigrum is piperine although other compounds are also present including piperic acid, piperlonguminine, pellitorine, piperolein B, piperamide, piperettine, and (-)-kusunokinin, which also showed biological potency. Most pharmacological studies were conducted in vitro (n = 60) while only 21 in vivo and 1 clinical trial were performed. Hence, more in vivo experiments using a pharmacokinetic and pharmacokinetic approach would be beneficial. As a conclusive remark, P. nigrum should not only be regarded as "King of spices" but can also be considered as part of the kingdom of medicinal agents, comprising a panoply of bioactive compounds with potential nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

Ethnomedicinal applications of animal species by the local communities of Punjab, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Different species of animals are being utilized in traditional therapies by various cultures for a long time and such uses still exist in folk medicine. The present study aimed to document animal-based traditional therapies used by the local communities of Jhelum and Lahore districts of the Punjab province, Pakistan.

METHODS

Field surveys were conducted in 2015-2016 in six different sites of the study areas. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and face to face conversation with local informants.

RESULTS

The ethnomedicinal uses of 57 species of animals including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibian, and invertebrates (30, 25, 25, 7, 3.5, and 3.5%, respectively) were documented. Meat, oil, brain, fats, milk, eggs, and skin were the most utilized body parts. Ovis orientalis punjabiensis, Francolinus francolinus, Sperata sarwari, Channa punctata, Oreochromis niloticus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, and Carassius auratus were reported for the first time to treat human diseases, i.e., allergy, epilepsy, fever, joint pain, and backache, to act as aphrodisiac, and to enhance memory. Streptopelia decaocto and S. tranquebarica were the most frequently utilized species with highest frequency of citation (32 for each). Columba livia depicted highest fidelity level and used value of 92.86% and 0.89, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Being agro-pastoralists, the inhabitants of Jhelum possess more traditional knowledge compared to Lahore. The present study could be important for conservation and sustainable use of animal biodiversity in this region. Additionally, detailed study on chemical profiling and bioactivities may lead to animal-based novel drug discovery.

A study on food-medicine continuum among the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, India

BACKGROUND

Medicinal properties of the food species are one of the poorly documented and important areas of ethnopharmacology. The present survey quantitatively documented the medicinal foods prescribed by the non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.

METHODS

Field work was carried out between December 2014 and April 2017 using a questionnaire. The illnesses mentioned by the informants were grouped as illness categories on the basis of emic perceptions. Sufficiency of sampling of this survey was assessed by plotting the cumulative number of UR and Shannon-Wiener's index. The indices such as informant consensus factor (FIC), Index of Agreement on Remedies (IAR), and Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) were calculated.

RESULTS

This study documented 165 medicinal foods used by 82 non-institutionally trained siddha practitioners of Tiruvallur district, and 73.93% of these preparations were plant based. Among the animal taxa, 82.05% were represented by fish taxa. The illness category gastrointestinal ailments is the majorly cited illness category treated with plant-based formulations. The illness categories viz., gastrointestinal ailments, hemorrhoids, and neural ailments had high consensus under the group of plant-based medicinal foods. In animal-based medicinal foods, kapha ailments had gained 23.07% of UR. The illness categories such as bone fractures, male reproductive ailments, blood ailments, and anabolic had high FIC values.

CONCLUSIONS

Deeper studies on different dietary cultures of India may help to derive better interpretations on food-medicine continuum. This study identified some important claims such as the use of citron, pomegranate and Solanum americanum (gastrointestinal ailments), Abutilon indicum, onions and elephant foot yam (hemorrhoids), Boerhavia diffusa (urinary ailments), Moringa oleifera (anemia), Aloe vera (gynecological ailments), Eclipta prostrata (liver ailments), ivy gourd (diabetes), citron (hypertension), Centella asiatica (psychological ailments), spade nose shark (lactogogue), reticulate whipray (wheezing and bronchitis), Katelysia opima (impotence), Indian squid (anemia), and Indian oil sardine (anabolic). More studies on these claims will help identify novel functional foods to add to the field of medical nutrition therapy, with traditional brand identity. Robust studies on the documentation of the traditional knowledge on marine resources will yield a good database for various stakeholders and policy makers.

[The use of animal-assisted therapy: a bioethical question]

This paper addresses ethical questions concerning animal-assisted therapy (zootherapy). While it has been documented for centuries in several cultures and is resistant to urban and technological developments, it combines multiple moral and vulnerable agents, constituting a dilemma whose fair and consensual solution calls for new perspectives, like environmental bioethics. Through analyses of scientific texts, the arguments and values intrinsic to decisions about how and when to use animals as medical resources are systematized. Using bioethics as a method, reflections are offered about the potential solutions dependent on the multidimensional communication between the players from the three pillars of sustainability - environment, society, and economy - involved in this global ethical question, focusing on conservation and sustainable production.

Traditional knowledge on herbal drinks among indigenous communities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Traditional knowledge about the use of medicinal plants for herbal drinks (HDs) is not well documented in the Azad Kashmir region despite their widespread use. This study highlights the taxonomic diversity and traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used for HDs while examining the diversity of diseases treated with HDs in the study area.

METHODS

Individual discussions were conducted with 255 informants (84 women and 171 men). Data gathered included (i) informant age and gender, (ii) HD species and respective plant parts used, (iii) health disorders treated, and (iv) mode of preparation and utilizations. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices including relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (ICF), and use value (UV) were used for data analyses.

RESULTS

Altogether, 73 medicinal plants belonging to 40 families and 66 genera were reported to be used in HD preparations, with Asteraceae being the richest family. The average number of HD species cited was 9.09 ± 0.17 per informant and did not vary either by age or gender. In addition, men and women, and adults and the young used the same pool of species (dissimilarity nearly zero). The most used plant parts were leaves (20.00%), roots (17.25%), and fruits (16.47%). Based on UV, the top five most used species were Valeriana jatamansi, Isodon rugosus, Onopordum acanthium, Acacia nilotica, and Viola canescens; and the UV was similar among gender and age categories too. The most utilized herbal preparation forms included decoctions, infusions, and tea. One hundred and eleven diseases grouped into 13 ailment categories were reported to be cured using HDs. The main category of disease treated with HDs was gastrointestinal (GIT) disorders (RFC = 17.43%). Relatively few species were used by a large proportion of informants for each category of ailment (ICF ≥ 0.60). Only one species was used for "glandular disorders" and "eye diseases" (ICF = 1). A novelty of about 22% (16 species) was recorded for HD species in the present work.

CONCLUSION

The diversity of medicinal plant species used as HDs and the associated traditional knowledge are of considerable value to the indigenous communities of the Azad Kashmir region. Therefore, there is a need for conservation and preservation of medicinal HD species as well as the wealth of indigenous knowledge. The conservation effort should be high for species in the ailments categories glandular disorders and eye diseases. The therapeutic uses of HDs have provided basic data for further research focused on phytochemical and pharmacological studies and conservation of the most important species.

Ethnomedicinal and cultural practices of mammals and birds in the vicinity of river Chenab, Punjab-Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Although, use of animal species in disease treatment and culture practices is as ancient as that of plant species; however ethnomedicinal uses and cultural values of animal species have rarely been reported. Present study is the first report on the medicinal uses of mammals and bird species in Pakistan.

METHODS

Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were applied to collect qualitative and quantitative data from local informants (N = 109). Relative frequency of mention (RFM), fidelity level (FL), relative popularity level (RPL), similarity index (SI) and rank order priority (ROP) indices were used to analyzed the data.

RESULTS

One hundred and eight species of animals, which include: 83% birds and 17% mammals were documented. In total 30 mammalian and 28 birds' species were used to treat various diseases such as rheumatic disorders, skin infections and sexual weakness among several others. Fats, flesh, blood, milk and eggs were the most commonly utilized body parts. Bos taurus, Bubalus bubalis, Capra aegagrus hircus, Felis domesticus, Lepus nigricollis dayanus and Ovis aries (mammals) and Anas platyrhynchos domesticus, Columba livia, Coturnix coturnix, Gallus gallus and Passer domesticus (birds) were the highly utilized species. Medicinal and cultural uses of 30% mammals and 46% birds were reported for the first time, whereas 33% mammals and 79% birds depicted zero similarity with previous reports.

CONCLUSION

Present study exhibits significant ethnozoological knowledge of local inhabitants and their strong association with animal species, which could be helpful in sustainable use of biodiversity of the region. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo evaluation of biological activities in the mammalian and birds' species with maximum fidelity level and frequency of mention could be important to discover animal based novel drugs. Some commonly used mammals and birds species of the study area.

Ethnozoological assessment of animals used by Mon traditional medicine vendors at Kyaiktiyo, Myanmar

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wild animals are widely used in traditional Asian medicine but information from Myanmar is lacking. We show that a wide range of animals are used at a pilgrimage site, mostly for their rendered fats and oils to be used in mixed concoctions. The majority of species were sold to be used to treat aching joints, muscle ache and skin diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To assess wildlife for sale for medicinal purposes, and document their medicinal use at Kyaiktiyo, a pilgrimage site at a 1100m tall mountain, with many of the pilgrims climbing to the top. In addition we address legal issues relating to the production and sale of traditional medicine that contain legally protected animals.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Four visits were made to Kyaiktiyo, Myanmar, between 2000 and 2017 to quantify animal parts on display and through discussions with vendors to obtain information on medicinal use of these parts.

RESULTS

Twenty-three species, mostly mammals, were recorded to be used for traditional medicine. The most common were Chinese serow Capricornis milneedwardsii, Asian elephant Elephas maximus, and Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus. Over 600 bodies or body parts were present. Combined, these parts purportedly provided cures or relief for at least 15 ailments or diseases. The most commonly mentioned treatment was that of using rendered animal fats/oils externally to relieve/cure aching joints or muscles. This treatment allegedly provides instant relief to pilgrims after an arduous climb up the mountain. Purported cures for various skin diseases was the next common use for the animal species on offer. Ten of the species observed for sale at Kyaiktiyo are listed as globally threatened, and 15 are protected and cannot be legally traded. Ambiguities in Myanmar's legislation mean that protected animals or their body parts cannot be traded, however traditional medicines can be made out of them provided rules relating to the manufacturing of traditional medicines are adhered to.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that animals and their parts continue to be openly offered for sale at Kyaiktiyo to treat various illnesses. Despite these products potential medical, traditional or cultural importance, solutions have to been found on how to ensure that, in line with Myanmar's laws, use of traditional local medicine does not impede the conservation of imperilled species.

Provide context when reporting on the use of protected and endangered wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The value of reports on the use of wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys increases when context is provided on the legality of its use and on the species' conservation status.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate if context is provided when protected and threatened animals are reported as being used in traditional medicine, and to provide recommendations for future reporting.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of recent papers in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

RESULTS

Rarely is information provided on (1) the conservation status of the animals that are used in traditional medicine, (2) whether the parts can be obtained non-invasively or if the animals have to be killed, or (3) whether or not it is legal to use the animals, their parts or derivatives according to national law.

CONCLUSION

When presenting the results of ethnopharmalogical surveys include (1) the conservation status of the species affected, (2) whether or not parts could be harvested non-invasively and (3) the legality of harvesting and / or trading these animals, their parts or their derivatives. Our focus here is on animals, given that more so than in plants or fungi, many of their parts used in natural medicine cannot be obtained non-invasively, but a similar set of guidelines could be developed for other taxa.

Therapeutic and prophylactic uses of invertebrates in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine

Zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinary medicine are important in many socio-cultural environments around the world, particularly in developing countries, and they have recently started to be inventoried and studied in Europe. In light of this, the purpose of this review is to describe the local knowledge and folk remedies based on the use of invertebrates and their derivative products in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine. An overview in the fields of ethnozoology, ethnoveterinary medicine and folklore was made. Automated searches in the most important databases were performed. All related works were examined thoroughly and use-reports were obtained from 53 documentary sources. The traditional use of 18 invertebrate species and five ethnotaxa and a total of 86 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species was recorded. The two most relevant zoological groups were found to be insects and molluscs. A broad diversity of body parts or derivative products have been and are used to treat or prevent ca. 50 animal diseases or conditions, in particular diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, different infectious livestock diseases, and disorders of the eye and adnexa. Cattle, sheep and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of remedies are mentioned. In addition, seven magical remedies and practices are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, this is a rich heritage. The use-reports included here will help in the search for new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes, future research addressing the validation of the effects and the development of organic farming.

A quantitative ethnozoological study of traditionally used animals in Pachamalai hills of Tamil Nadu, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The purpose of this study was designed to gather primary folk knowledge on different animal based therapies used by Malayalis in Pachamalai hills. This is the first ethnozoological study in Pachamalai hills; the data regarding the medicinal animals/animal products were documented and their usages were analyzed quantitatively.

METHODS

Data was collected following the interviews from key informants (N=89) and reported diseases and health complications were classified in 18 categories. Seven quantitative indexes such as informant consensus factor (FIC), fidelity level (FL), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance (RI), cultural importance index (CII), index of agreement on remedies (IAR) and cultural agreement index (CAI) were used to analyze the reported animal species.

RESULTS

A total of 46 animal species belonging to 8 taxonomic groups were documented to be used in traditional medicine by Malayalis in Pachamalai hills. Animal based medicines were prepared from whole animals or their body parts or products extracted from them such as: butter, meat, milk, bones, horn, musk, skin, fin, honey, mucus, eggs, urine, excreta, hair and legs. The most encountered taxonomic group was Mammalia having 14 species. Aphrodisiac ailments (AA) (0.99), Dental care ailments (DCA) (0.99), Endocrinal disorders ailments (EDA) (0.99), Hair care ailments (HCA) (0.99), Oncology ailments (OA) (0.99) and Ortho ailments (ORTA) (0.99) gained the highest FIC value. Sus scrofa domesticus scored the highest FL (100%) for the Skeleto-muscular ailments for external cause; Lissemys punctata had the highest RI value (2.00) due to its versatility and the highest frequency of citation (RFC=1.000). Gallus domesticus had the highest cultural importance (CII=8.538) and the highest CAI value (CAI=8.427). According to IAR, Plexippus paykulli (IAR=1.00), Equus ferrus caballus (IAR=1.00), Trachypithecus johnii (IAR=1.00), Oecophylla samaragdina (IAR=1.00) and Apis indica (0.990) had the highest agreement among the informants for being used for the same medicinal purpose. Furthermore, no side effects have been reported from the use of ABT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that Malayalis (Pachamalai hills) possess valuable knowledge on Malayalis׳ animal based therapies. It is believed that the present documentation will serve to record this vanishing knowledge before it is eroded completely from the island and to the scientific community. It is also anticipated that the present documentation will be fundamental to protect traditional knowledge, for the conservation and sustainable use of the rich biodiversity of Pachamalai hills for future generations and to ensure Pachamalai hills׳ sovereign rights over its genetic resources and utilization by first documenting them. In addition, further experimental investigations are required to elucidate the pharmacological properties of the reported medicinal fauna of Pachmalai hills.

Ethnozoological study of animals used by traditional healers in Silent Valley of Kerala, India

AIM OF STUDY

India has great biodiversity of fauna. The use of fauna with medicinal properties is a common practice since pre-hispanic times. In the last decade, there has been an interest in ethnozoological studies in India. Ethnozoological studies are necessary in order to discover new medications for human health. There is urgency in recording such data. This is the first ethnozoological study in which statistical calculations about animals are done by the ICF method in Kerala, India. The purpose of this study is to analyze and record traditional knowledge of animals utilized by the indigenous people living on Silent Valley, located in Palakkad district of Kerala, India and to document the traditional names, preparation and uses of these animals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field study was carried out for a period of September 2011 to August 2012 years in Kerala. The ethnomedicinal information was collected through interviews, informal meetings, open and group discussions and overt observations with semi-structured questionnaires among traditional healers. The collected data were analyzed through informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL).

RESULTS

This study recorded a total of 57 families, 66 genera, and 69 species of animals that produced 163 methods for usages. Mammalian occupied 29% of the total animals listed, followed by aves (28%), insects (17%), reptiles (10%), actinopterygii (4%), malacostraca, amphibians and clitellata (each 3%), chilopoda (2%) and gastropoda (1%) of the whole, respectively. In regards to usage, 68 species utilized as food products and medicinal uses, totaled 98.55% followed by one species for cosmetics (1.45%).

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that the animals are still being used by the local healers of Palakkad district, to treat various illnesses. The empirical knowledge reported in this study will provide outstanding possibilities for the discovery of new sources of medicine for the drug industry.