Comparison of two Jatropha species (Euphorbiaceae) used popularly to treat snakebites in Northeastern Brazil: Chemical profile, inhibitory activity against Bothrops erythromelas venom and antibacterial activity

Nanoemulsion containing Jatropha gossypiifolia leaf extract reduces dermonecrosis induced by Bothrops erythromelas venom and accelerates wound closure

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The species Jatropha gossypiifolia, popularly known as "pinhão-roxo", is distributed throughout Brazil, is commonly employed for topical or oral administration in treating wounds, inflammations, and snake bites. Given the significant impact of snakebites on public health and the limitations of antivenom, coupled with the diverse molecular composition of this plant species, investigating its healing and antidermonecrotic capacities is relevant.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to develop a topical nanoemulsion incorporating the hydroethanolic extract of J. gossypiifolia leaves, to evaluate its therapeutic potential, particularly in terms of its efficacy in wound healing and inhibition of dermonecrosis induced by B. erythromelas venom (BeV).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The extract of J. gossypiifolia (JgE) leaves was obtained by maceration and remaceration. The phytochemical analysis was conducted and J. gossypiifolia nanoemulsion (JgNe) was obtained, characterized and assessed for stability. The cytotoxicity was determined in normal cells (erythrocytes and 3T3) using hemolytic assay and cell viability assay using crystal violet staining. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the reduction of ABTS and DPPH radicals. The evaluation of wound healing was conducted in vivo following treatment with JgNe, wherein the percentage of wound closure and inflammatory mediators. The skin irritation test was assessed in vivo by applying JgNe directly to the animal's skin. In vitro, the antivenom capacity was evaluated through enzymatic inhibition assays (phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase) of BeV. Additionally, the in vivo antidermonecrotic activity of JgNe was evaluated by measuring the reduction of the dermonecrotic halo.

RESULTS

The HPLC-DAD analysis identified flavonoids, specifically vitexin, luteolin derivatives and apigenin derivatives. In addition, 95.08 ± 5.46 mg of gallic acid/g of extract and 137.92 ± 0.99 mg quercetin/g extract, was quantified. JgNe maintained stability over a 4-week period. Moreover, JgE and JgNe demonstrated no cytotoxicity in human erythrocytes and murine fibroblasts at tested concentrations (32.25-250 μg/mL). Additionally, exhibited significant antioxidant activity by reducing ABTS and DPPH radicals. The treatment with JgNe did not induce skin irritation and accelerated wound healing, with significant wound closure observed from 5th day and reduction in nitrite levels, myeloperoxidase activity, and cytokine. Both JgE and JgNe demonstrated in vitro inhibition of the phospholipase and hyaluronidase enzymes of BeV. Moreover, JgNe exhibited antidermonecrotic activity by reducing the dermonecrotic halo caused by BeV after 24 h.

CONCLUSIONS

JgNe and JgE exhibited no cytotoxicity at the tested concentrations. Additionally, our findings demonstrate that JgNe has the ability to accelerate wound closure and reduce dermonecrosis caused by BeV, indicating to be promising formulation for complementary therapy to antivenom treatment.

Anti-inflammatory and antiophidic effects of extract of Hymenaea eriogyne Benth and structure-activity relationship prediction of the major markers in silico

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hymenaea eriogyne Benth (Fabaceae) is popularly known as "Jatobá". Despite its use in folk medicine to treat inflammatory disorders, there are no descriptions that show its anti-inflammatory potential.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this sense, this study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antivenom action of bark and leaves extract of H. eriogyne.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The in vivo anti-inflammatory activity was conducted by carrageenan-induced paw edema and zymosan-induced air pouch models, evaluating the edematogenic effect, leukocyte migration, protein concentration, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, malondialdehyde (MDA) and MPO activity. The antivenom potential was investigated in vitro on the enzymatic action (proteolytic, phospholipase and hyaluronidase) of Bothrops brazili and B. leucurus venom, as well as in vivo on the paw edema model induced by B. leucurus. Furthermore, the influence of its markers (astilbin and rutin) on myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was investigated in silico. For molecular docking, AutodockVina, Biovia Discovery Studio, and Chimera 1.16 software were used.

RESULTS

The extracts and bark and leaves of H. eriogyne revealed a high anti-inflammatory effect, with a reduction in all inflammatory parameters evaluated. The bark extract showed superior results when compared to the leaf extract, suggesting the influence of the astilbin concentration, higher in the bark, on the anti-inflammatory action. In addition, only the H. eriogyne bark extract was able to reduce MDA, indicating an associated antioxidant effect. Regarding the in vitro antivenom action, the extracts (bark and leaves) revealed the ability to inhibit the proteolytic, phospholipase and hyaluronidase action of both bothropic venom, with a greater effect against B. leucurus venom. In vivo, extracts from the bark and leaves of H. eriogyne (50 - 200 mg/kg) showed antiedematogenic activity, reducing the release of MPO and pro-inflammatory cytokines, indicating the presence of bioactive components useful in controlling the inflammatory process induced by the venom. In the in silico assays, astilbin and rutin showed reversible interactions of 9 possible positions and orientations towards MPO, with affinities of -9.5 and -10.4 kcal/mol and interactions with Phe407, Gln91, His95 and Arg239, important active pockets of MPO. Rutin demonstrated more effective types of interactions with MPO.

CONCLUSION

This approach reveals for the first time the anti-inflammatory action of H. eriogyne bark and leaf extracts in vivo, as well as its antiophidic potential. Moreover, the distinct effect of pharmacogens as antioxidant agents and distinct effect of astilbin and rutin under MPO sheds light on the different anti-inflammatory mechanisms of bioactive compounds present in H. eriogyne extracts, with high potential for the prospection of new pharmacological agents.

Anti-inflammatory, healing and antiophidic potential of Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill. (Euphorbiaceae): From popular use to pharmaceutical formulation in gel

Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill. (Euphorbiaceae) is widely used in traditional medicine to treat inflammatory disorders. So, a topical gel containing the hydroethanolic extract of its leaves was developed and evaluated for its anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and antiophidic properties in mice. First, the chemical profile of different parts of the plant was characterized by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) using molecular networking. In the leaf extract, 11 compounds were characterized, with a particular emphasis on the identification of flavonoids. The gel efficiently inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema, as well as acute and chronic croton oil-induced ear edema models, thereby reducing inflammatory and oxidative parameters in inflamed tissues. Besides anti-inflammatory activity, the herbal gel showed significant wound healing activity. The edematogenic, hemorrhagic and dermonecrotic activities induced by Bothrops jararaca snake venom were effectively inhibited by the treatment with J. mollissima gel. The association with the herbal gel improved in up to 90% the efficacy of commercial snake antivenom in reduce venom-induced edema. Additionally, while antivenom was not able to inhibit venom-induced dermonecrosis, treatment with herbal gel reduced in 55% the dermonocrotic halo produced. These results demonstrate the pharmacological potential of the herbal gel containing J. mollissima extract, which could be a strong candidate for the development of herbal products that can be used to complement the current antivenom therapy against snake venom local toxicity.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory and antiophidic effects of the extract and fraction of Eugenia uniflora

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eugenia uniflora Linn, popularly known as 'pitanga', is a native plant endemic to Brazil that belongs to the Myrtaceae family. Its traditional use (leaves infusion) has been reported for the treatment of different diseases, including hypertension, inflammation, and as a diuretic agent. Considering the snakebite problem and the rich molecule repertoire of this herbal species, studies that evaluate its antiophidic potential are relevant for a broad social impact.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This approach aims to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antiophidic potential in vitro and in vivo of the extract (aqueous) and a fraction (ethyl acetate) of E. uniflora leaves against Bothrops leucurus and Bothrops brazili venoms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extract and fraction from E. uniflora leaves were obtained by turbo-extraction and partitioning. The cytotoxicity was assayed on normal cell lines (Vero E6 and 3T3) using the 3-methyl-[4-5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide method. The anti-inflammatory activity of the aqueous extract was analyzed in vivo in the zymosan-induced air pouch model, and the leukocytes migration and other molecular inflammatory mediators quantified (myeloperoxidase, total protein, pro-inflammatory cytokine, malondialdehyde, and glutathione). In vitro, the antiophidic effect was evaluated by the ability of the E. uniflora extract and fraction to inhibit the enzymatic action (proteolytic, phospholipase A2, and hyaluronidase) of B. leucurus and B. brazili venoms. In addition, the antiophidic action in vivo was investigated after treatment with E. uniflora extract and fraction (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) in the B. leucurus venom-induced paw edema with an evaluation of the antiedematogenic effect and quantification of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels.

RESULTS

The E. uniflora leaves extract (7.8-125 mg/mL) revealed no toxicity in cell culture, but reduced MTT by 47% at the highest concentration (250 mg/mL) in Vero E6 cells. In contrast, the E. uniflora fraction (7.8-250 mg/mL) showed no cytotoxicity for both cell lines. In the air pouch model, E. uniflora leaves extract demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity, reducing cell migration, MPO activity, protein, malondialdehyde, and proinflammatory cytokines, and increased glutathione levels. Evaluating the antiophidic action in vitro, E. uniflora extract and fraction inhibited the proteolytic, phospholipase, and hyaluronidase effects of B. leucurus and B. brazili venoms at low concentrations. In addition, the extract and fraction also demonstrated in vivo antiophidic activity by reducing edema in the first 0.5 h after treatment, besides reducing MPO and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels.

CONCLUSION

E. uniflora leaves extract showed cytotoxicity only at the highest concentration while the fraction revealed no toxic effect in vitro. This approach showed for the first time that the aqueous extract and ethyl acetate fraction of E. uniflora leaves has similar antiophidic action in vitro and in vivo, with antiedematogenic and anti-inflammatory effects and the ability to inhibit the enzymatic action of B. leucurus and B. brazili venoms. Therefore, this study points to the presence of bioactive components in the leaves of E. uniflora useful for the treatment of inflammatory disorders and ophidian accidents, expanding the therapeutic potential of this herbal species.

Blood plasma proteome alteration after local tissue damage induced by Bothrops erythromelas snake venom in mice

Snakes of the genus Bothrops are responsible the most snakebites in the Brazil, causing a diverse and complex pathophysiological condition. Bothrops erythromelas is the main specie of medical relevance found in the Caatinga from the Brazilian Northeast region. The pathophysiological effects involving B. erythromelas snakebite as well as the organism reaction in response to this envenomation are not so explored. Thus, edema was induced in mice paws using 2.5 μg or 5.0 μg of B. erythromelas venom, and the percentage of edema was measured. Plasma was collected 30  minutes after the envenomation-induced in mice and analyzed by mass spectrometry. It was identified a total of 112 common plasma proteins differentially abundant among experimental groups, which are involved with the complement system and coagulation cascades, oxidative stress, neutrophil degranulation, platelets degranulation and inflammatory response. Apolipoprotein A1 (Apoa), serum amyloid protein A-4 (Saa4), adiponectin (Adipoq) showed up-regulated in mice plasma after injection of venom, while fibulin (Fbln1), factor XII (F12) and vitamin K-dependent protein Z (Proz) showed down-regulated. The results indicate a protein pattern of thrombo-inflammation to the B. erythromelas snakebite, evidencing potential biomarkers for monitoring this snakebite, new therapeutic targets and its correlations with the degree of envenomation once showed modulations in the abundance among the different groups according to the amount of venom injected into the mice.

The potential of Brazilian native plant species used in the therapy for snakebites: A literature review

Snakebite envenoming is a potentially fatal disease categorized as a neglected public health issue for not receiving the appropriate attention from national and international health authorities. The most affected people by this problem usually live in poor rural communities, where medical resources are often sparse and, in some instances, there is even a scarcity of serum therapy. The administration of the appropriate antivenom is the only specific treatment available, however it has limited efficacy against venom-induced local effects. In this scenario, various plant species are used as local first aid for the treatment of snakebite accidents in Brazil, and some of them can effectively inhibit lethality, neurotoxicity, hemorrhage, and venom enzymes activities. This review compiles a list of plants used in the treatment of snakebites in Brazil, focusing on the native Brazilian species registered in the databases Pubmed, Scielo, Scopus and Google Scholar. All these searches were limited to peer-reviewed journals written in English, with the exception of a few articles written in Portuguese. The most cited native plant species were Casearia sylvestris Sw., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Mikania glomerata Spreng., Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S.F.Blake and Dipteryx alata Vogel, all used to decrease the severity of toxic signs, inhibit proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities, thus increasing survival time and neutralizing myotoxicity effects. Different active compounds showing important activity against the snake venoms and their toxins include flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins. Although some limitations to the experimental studies with medicinal plants were observed, including lack of comparison with control drugs and unknown active extracts compounds, species with anti-venom characteristics are effective and considered as candidates for the development of adjuvants in the treatment of snake envenomation. Further studies on the chemistry and pharmacology of traditionally used plant species will help to understand the role that snakebite herbal remedies may display in local medical health systems. It might also contribute to the development of alternative or complementary treatments to reduce the number of severe disabilities and deaths.

Insights on the inhibition properties of Jatromollistatin (a cyclic heptapeptide) against Crotalus adamanteus metalloendopeptidase using molecular docking analysis

Jatropha mollissima is endemic to Brazil and is used for traditional medicinal purposes, including the treatment of snakebite. In this study, latex obtained from this plant was fractioned using reversed-phase chromatography, and the fractions were then screened for peptides. A 755 Da peptide was obtained, and MS/MS analyses indicated it had a cyclic sequence (Pro-Leu-Gly-Val-Leu-Leu-Tyr). This peptide sequence was present in the Jatropha genome database, and an identity value of 90.71%, an E-value of 0.0 and a score of 883 with NO-associated protein 1/chloroplastic/mitochondria of Jatropha curcas were obtained from the NCBI non-redundant protein sequence (nr) database. Molecular docking analyses performed with the peptide against a metalloendopeptidase belonging to Crotalus adamanteus snake venom suggested the cyclic peptide establishes favorable interactions with the catalytic site of the enzyme. Therefore, it could inhibit enzyme catalysis. This belief was corroborated by the formation of 6 hydrogen bonds with the linear form of the peptide. Tighter complexation of the cyclic form (41 kcal/mol more energetic) revealed better spatial blocking. The linear form outperformed the cyclic form in complexing the required energy, recruiting more catalytic residues (6/2), and in establishing more hydrogen bonds (6/3). However, cyclic folding provided a more significant spatial block within the catalytic site. The set of results suggests that the cycle peptide, here called Jatromollistatin, which was previously described as jatrophidin and pohlianin A in two other species of Jatropha, is a promising candidate to inhibit venom proteases. This belief is corroborated by the topical use of the latex for initial treatment of snakebites. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Taste and chemical composition as drives for utilitarian redundancy and equivalence: a case study in local medical systems in Northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

We aimed to verify whether the taste and chemical composition influence the selection of plants in each medicinal category, whether within a socio-ecological system or between different socio-ecological systems. To this end, we use the theoretical bases of the Utilitarian Redundancy Model and the Utilitarian Equivalence Model. We studied the local medical systems of four rural communities in northeastern Brazil, used as models to test our assumptions.

METHODS

The data on medicinal plants and local therapeutic function were obtained from semi-structured interviews associated with the free-listing method, allowing to generate indexes of similarity of therapeutic use between the plants cited in each region. During the interviews, each informer was also asked to report the tastes of the plants cited. Subsequently, we classified each plant in each region according to the most cited taste. The data about the chemical composition of each plant were obtained from a systematic review, using Web of Knowledge and Scopus databases.

RESULTS

Pairs of plants with similar tastes are 1.46 times more likely to have the same therapeutic function within a local medical system (redundancy), but not between medical systems (equivalence). We also find that chemical compounds are not primarily responsible for utilitarian redundancy and equivalence. However, there was a tendency for alkaloids to be doubly present with greater expressiveness in pairs of equivalent plants.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that each social group can create its means of using the organoleptic characteristics as clues to select new species as medicinal. Furthermore, this study corroborates the main prediction of the Utilitarian Equivalence Model, that people in different environments choose plants with traits in common for the same functions.

Pain modulated by Bothrops snake venoms: Mechanisms of nociceptive signaling and therapeutic perspectives

Snake venoms are substances mostly composed by proteins and peptides with high biological activity. Local and systemic effects culminate in clinical manifestations induced by these substances. Pain is the most uncomfortable condition, but it has not been well investigated. This review discusses Bothrops snakebite-induced nociception, highlighting molecules involved in the mediation of this process and perspectives in treatment of pain induced by Bothrops snake venoms (B. alternatus, B. asper, B. atrox, B. insularis, B. jararaca, B. pirajai, B. jararacussu, B. lanceolatus, B. leucurus, B. mattogrossensis, B. moojeni). We highlight, the understanding of the nociceptive signaling, especially in snakebite, enables more efficient treatment approaches. Finally, future perspectives for pain treatment concerning snakebite patients are discussed.

Phytochemical prospecting, isolation, and protective effect of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Baill

Jatropha mollissima is used in folk medicine as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and larvicidal. However, few toxicogenetic studies have been carried out. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the phytochemical profile of ethanolic leaf extract of J. mollissima (EEJM) as well as potential cytotoxic, mutagenic, and antimutagenic properties. The EEJM was subjected to successive fractionation for the isolation of secondary metabolites, and five concentrations (0.01; 0.1; 1; 10 and 100 mg/ml) of extract were investigated using Allium cepa assay and the Somatic Mutation and Recombination (SMART) test. The mitotic index and % damage reduction were analyzed for A. cepa and the frequency of mutant hair for SMART. The presence of coumarins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins was detected, while spinasterol and n-triacontane were the isolates identified for the first time for this species. EEJM did not exhibit cytotoxicity and was not mutagenic at 1 or 10 mg/ml using A. cepa and all concentrations of EEJM were not mutagenic in the SMART test. A cytoprotective effect was found at all concentrations. At 1 or 10 mg/ml EEJM exhibited antimutagenicity in A. cepa. In SMART, the protective effect was observed at 0.1 to 100 mg/ml EEJM. Our results demonstrate the important chemopreventive activity of EEJM, a desired quality in the search for natural anticarcinogenic compounds.

Chemical Composition and Biological Properties of Two Jatropha Species: Different Parts and Different Extraction Methods

Jatropha L. species, in particular, J. curcas and J. gossypiifolia, are well known medicinal plants used for treating various diseases. In the present study, leaf and stem bark extracts of J. curcas and J. gossypiifolia obtained by maceration or homogenizer assisted extraction, were investigated for their phytochemical contents and biological potential as antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors and neuromodulators. In this regard, the gene expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was investigated in hypothalamic HypoE22 cells. Finally, a bioinformatics analysis was carried out with the aim to unravel the putative mechanisms consistent with both metabolomic fingerprints and pharmacological effects. The leaf extracts of J. curcas showed higher total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) than the stem bark extracts (range: 5.79–48.95 mg GAE/g and 1.64–13.99 mg RE/g, respectively), while J. gossypiifolia possessed TPC and TFC in the range of 42.62–62.83 mg GAE/g and 6.97–17.63 mg RE/g, respectively. HPLC-MS/MS analysis revealed that the leaf extracts of both species obtained by homogenizer assisted extraction are richer in phytochemical compounds compared to the stem bark extracts obtained by the same extraction method. In vitro antioxidant potentials were also demonstrated in different assays (DPPH: 6.89–193.93 mg TE/g, ABTS: 20.20–255.39 mg TE/g, CUPRAC: 21.07–333.30 mg TE/g, FRAP: 14.02–168.93 mg TE/g, metal chelating activity: 3.21–17.51 mg EDTAE/g and phosphomolybdenum assay: 1.76–3.55 mmol TE/g). In particular, the leaf extract of J. curcas and the stem bark extract of J. gossypiifolia, both obtained by homogenizer assisted extraction, showed the most potent antioxidant capacity in terms of free radical scavenging and reducing activity, which could be related to their higher TPC and TFC. Furthermore, anti-neurodegenerative (acetylcholinesterase inhibition: 1.12–2.36 mg GALAE/g; butyrylcholinetserase inhibition: 0.50–3.68 mg GALAE/g), anti-hyperpigmentation (tyrosinase inhibition: 38.14–57.59 mg KAE/g) and antidiabetic (amylase inhibition: 0.28–0.62 mmol ACAE/g; glucosidase inhibition: 0.65–0.81 mmol ACAE/g) properties were displayed differentially by the different extracts. Additionally, the extracts were effective in reducing the gene expression of both TNFα and BDNF, which could be partially mediated by phenolic compounds such as naringenin, apigenin and quercetin. Indeed, the scientific data obtained from the present study complement the several other reports highlighting the pharmacological potentials of these two species, thus supporting their uses as therapeutically active plants.

Flavonoids from the Genus Euphorbia: Isolation, Structure, Pharmacological Activities and Structure-Activity Relationships

Plants of the genus Euphorbia are widely distributed across temperate, tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Asia and Africa with established Ayurvedic, Chinese and Malay ethnomedical records. The present review reports the isolation, occurrence, phytochemistry, biological properties, therapeutic potential and structure-activity relationship of Euphorbia flavonoids for the period covering 2000-2020, while identifying potential areas for future studies aimed at development of new therapeutic agents from these plants. The findings suggest that the extracts and isolated flavonoids possess anticancer, antiproliferative, antimalarial, antibacterial, anti-venom, anti-inflammatory, anti-hepatitis and antioxidant properties and have different mechanisms of action against cancer cells. Of the investigated species, over 80 different types of flavonoids have been isolated to date. Most of the isolated flavonoids were flavonols and comprised simple O-substitution patterns, C-methylation and prenylation. Others had a glycoside, glycosidic linkages and a carbohydrate attached at either C-3 or C-7, and were designated as d-glucose, l-rhamnose or glucorhamnose. The structure-activity relationship studies showed that methylation of the hydroxyl groups on C-3 or C-7 reduces the activities while glycosylation loses the activity and that the parent skeletal structure is essential in retaining the activity. These constituents can therefore offer potential alternative scaffolds towards development of new Euphorbia-based therapeutic agents.

Chemophenetic Significance of Anomalocalyx uleanus Metabolites are Revealed by Dereplication Using Molecular Networking Tools

Anomalocalyx uleanus (Pax & K. Hoffm.) Ducke (Euphorbiaceae) is a singular species in the genus and is restricted and exclusive to the Brazilian Amazon. A phytochemical study of A. uleanus leaves was performed, yielding the isolation of five major compounds: catechin/epicatechin, afzelin, quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, and astilbin. The phytochemical compositions of the methanolic extracts of leaves, roots, bark, and stem bark were determined using a dereplication approach. Forty-six compounds were annotated from the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) data, while four lipids were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In total, fifty compounds were detected, and they belonged to the primary metabolism and several classes of natural products such as flavonoids, flavonoids O-glycosides, flavonoids C-glycosides, biflavonoids, procyanidin, triterpene, triterpenes esterified with phenylpropanoids, phenylpropanoid derivatives, flavonolignans, coumarins, quinic acid derivatives, and benzoic acid derivatives. This is the first report on the phytochemical data of the genus Anomalocalyx, and the results of this study will contribute to the chemosystematic knowledge of the Euphorbiaceae family and justify the need for investigation of the pharmacological potential of the species A. uleanus.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Jatropha curcas L. in brain glial cells primary cultures

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae), a medicinal plant known in Brazil as "Pinhão Manso", is highly adaptable, being cultivated in different tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities have been attributed to different parts of the plant. In the central nervous sytem (CNS), neuroinflammation is mediated by glial cells, mainly by astrocytes and microglia, a process that plays an important role in neurodegenerative diseases and other CNS disorders. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of the methanolic extract obtained from the leaves of J. curcas L. (MEJc) in primary cultures of glial cells submited to inflammatory stimulus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary cultures of glial cells obtained from the cerebral cortex of neonate Wistar rats were treated with MEJc (0.1-50,000 μg mL^-1) and its fractions (F_nJc) (0.1 μg mL^-1) with or without lipopolysaccharide of Escherichia coli (LPS) (1 μg mL^-1). Cell viability was determined with MTT test. Modifications in glial cell morphology were investigated by means of phase contrast microscopy and May-Grünwald staining. The reactivity of astrocytes and microglia were investigated with immunocytochemistry for GFAP, Iba1 and transcription factor NF-kB, as well as with Greiss reaction to determine the nitric oxide (NO) production.

RESULTS

MEJc at 0.1-1000 μg mL^-1 was non-toxic to glial cells and the DE₅₀ was 10.794 μg mL^-1. The treatment with LPS induced the activation of astrocytes and microglia marked by morphological modifications and changes in the expression of GFAP and Iba1, as well as the increase in NF-kB expression and NO production. Treatment with MEJc inhibited the morphological modifications, changes in GFAP and Iba1 expression, and the increase in NF-kB and NO production induced by LPS.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that the MEJc and its fractions modulate inflammatory response of astrocytes and microglia to LPS and may be considered as a potential therapeutic strategy for neuroinflammation-related diseases.

The genus Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae): A review on secondary chemical metabolites and biological aspects

The genus Jatropha belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family and has about 175 species. Originally from tropical America, the Jatropha genus can be found all over the tropics and subtropics of Asia and Africa. Jatropha species are recognized to be important sources of secondary metabolites with a broad spectrum of biological functions. Extracts and isolated compounds from species of this genus have been known to have properties of cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, insecticidal, larvicidal, inhibition AChE, and toxicity activities. Investigations on the chemical aspects of the genus Jatropha have led to the identification of cyclic peptides, lignans, flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, eudesmenoic acids, and mainly terpenes. In this review, we provide a comprehensive picture of the phytochemical and biological characteristics of Jatropha species. The information gathered and approached in this paper might support the planning and discussion of future studies on the topic.

Recent Trends in the Application of Chromatographic Techniques in the Analysis of Luteolin and Its Derivatives

Luteolin is a flavonoid often found in various medicinal plants that exhibits multiple biological effects such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity. Commercially available medicinal plants and their preparations containing luteolin are often used in the treatment of hypertension, inflammatory diseases, and even cancer. However, to establish the quality of such preparations, appropriate analytical methods should be used. Therefore, the present paper provides the first comprehensive review of the current analytical methods that were developed and validated for the quantitative determination of luteolin and its C- and O-derivatives including orientin, isoorientin, luteolin 7-O-glucoside and others. It provides a systematic overview of chromatographic analytical techniques including thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), liquid chromatography (LC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and counter-current chromatography (CCC), as well as the conditions used in the determination of luteolin and its derivatives in plant material.

Plants and Phytocompounds Active Against Bothrops Venoms

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Snakebite envenomation is an important health problem in tropical countries, with severe human and social consequences. In Latin America, the Bothrops species constitute the main threat to humans, and the envenomation caused by these species quickly develops into severe local tissue damage, including swelling, hemorrhaging, myonecrosis, skin ulceration, and pain. The systemic effects of envenomation are usually neutralized by antivenom serum therapy, despite its intrinsic risks. However, neutralization of local tissue damage remains a challenge. To improve actual therapy, two major alternatives are proposed: the rational design of new specific antibodies for most of the tissue damaging/ poor immunogenic toxins, or the search for new synthetic or natural compounds which are able to inhibit these toxins and complement the serum therapy. Natural compounds isolated from plants, mainly from those used in folk medicine to treat snakebite, are a good choice for finding new lead compounds to improve snakebite treatment and minimize its consequences for the victims. In this article, we reviewed the most promising plants and phytocompounds active against bothropic venoms.

Development of an effective and safe topical anti-inflammatory gel containing Jatropha gossypiifolia leaf extract: Results from a pre-clinical trial in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jatropha gossypiifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) is a medicinal plant widely used in traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory remedy. The topical use of the leaves and/or aerial parts of this plant as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, wound healing and anti-infective in several skin diseases is a common practice in many countries. The use of baths or dressings with this vegetal species is frequently reported in folk medicine.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the topical anti-inflammatory of aqueous extract from leaves of J. gossypiifolia and to develop a safe and effective herbal gel with anti-inflammatory potential.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

First, the topical acute anti-inflammatory activity of J. gossypiifolia extract was evaluated in ear edema induced by single application of croton oil in mice. Then, a polaxamer-based gel containing J. gossypiifolia extract was developed, physicochemically characterized and evaluated in the same model of inflammation to assess whether the extract incorporation in gel would affect its anti-inflammatory potential. The best formulation was then assayed in ear edema induced by multiple applications of croton oil in mice, to evaluate its chronic anti-inflammatory potential. Inflammatory parameters evaluated included edema, nitrite concentration, mieloperoxidase (MPO) activity and oxidative damage in lipids and proteins. Finally, dermal irritation/corrosion test in mice was performed to access the safeness of the developed gel. Phytochemical characterization of J. gossypiifolia extract was performed by high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) analysis.

RESULTS

J. gossypiifolia showed significant acute anti-inflammatory activity in ear edema model, and this activity was significantly increased when equivalent amounts of extract was applied incorporated in the developed polaxamer gels. The gels containing different amounts of extract reduced significantly the levels of edema, nitrite and MPO enzyme in mice ears, with intensity similar to the anti-inflammatory standard drug dexamethasone. The gel containing 1.0% of extract was further evaluated and also showed significant anti-inflammatory activity in chronic inflammation test, reducing significantly ear edema, lipid peroxidation and depletion of reduced glutathione, similarly to dexamethasone. Placebo formulation as well as gel containing extract showed pH compatible to that of human skin and exhibited absence of signs of toxicity in mice, indicating the safeness of the developed product for topical use. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of C-glycosylflavonoids (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin and isovitexin) as the major compounds of J. gossypiifolia aqueous leaf extract.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate the potentiality of J. gossypiifolia gel as a promising safe and effective topical anti-inflammatory agent for treatment of cutaneous inflammatory diseases.