Genus Ruta: A natural source of high value products with biological and pharmacological properties

Kokusaginine attenuates renal fibrosis by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Kokusaginine is an active ingredient alkaloid that has been isolated and extracted from Ruta graveolens L. Some researches have indicated that alkaloids possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Nevertheless, the potential nephroprotective effects of kokusaginine on renal fibrosis remain undetermined. This study was conducted to examine the protective effect of kokusaginine on renal fibrosis and to explore the underlying mechanisms using both in vivo and in vitro models. Renal fibrosis was induced in male C57BL/6 J mice by feeding with 0.2% adenine-containing food and UUO surgery. Kokusaginine was administered orally simultaneously after the establishment of renal fibrosis. Renal function was measured by serum levels of creatinine and urea nitrogen. Renal pathological changes were assessed by HE staining and Masson staining. Western blotting was employed to detect the expression levels of fibrosis-related proteins in mice and cells. Additionally, network pharmacology analysis and RNA-seq were utilized to predict the pathways through which kokusaginine could exert its anti-fibrotic effects. The treatment with kokusaginine enhanced renal function, alleviated renal histoarchitectural lesions, and mitigated renal fibrosis in the renal fibrosis models. The network pharmacology and RNA-seq enrichment analysis of the KEGG pathway demonstrated that kokusaginine could exert anti-renal fibrosis activity via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. And the results were verified in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. In conclusion, our data implied that kokusaginine inhibited the activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway both in vitro and in vivo, and suppressed the formation of renal fibrosis. Thus, the kokusaginine-mediated PI3K/AKT signaling pathway may represent a novel approach for the treatment of renal fibrosis.

A Review of Phototoxic Plants, Their Phototoxic Metabolites, and Possible Developments as Photosensitizers

This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding phototoxic terrestrial plants and their phototoxic and photosensitizing metabolites. Within the 435,000 land plant species, only around 250 vascular plants have been documented as phototoxic or implicated in phototoxic occurrences in humans and animals. This work compiles a comprehensive catalog of these phototoxic plant species, organized alphabetically based on their taxonomic family. The dataset encompasses meticulous details including taxonomy, geographical distribution, vernacular names, and information on the nature and structure of their phototoxic and photosensitizing molecule(s). Subsequently, this study undertook an in-depth investigation into phototoxic molecules, resulting in the compilation of a comprehensive and up-to-date list of phytochemicals exhibiting phototoxic or photosensitizing activity synthesized by terrestrial plants. For each identified molecule, an extensive review was conducted, encompassing discussions on its phototoxic activity, chemical family, occurrence in plant families or species, distribution within different plant tissues and organs, as well as the biogeographical locations of the producer species worldwide. The analysis also includes a thorough discussion on the potential use of these molecules for the development of new photosensitizers that could be used in topical or injectable formulations for antimicrobial and anticancer phototherapy as well as manufacturing of photoactive devices.

Cytotoxic, Anti-Hemolytic, and Antioxidant Activities of Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) Extract, Fractions, and Isolated Compounds

Ruta chalepensis is an herb used to treat various ailments, and its potential cytotoxic effects on different tumor cell lines have been extensively studied. The present study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic activity of R. chalepensis methanol extract (RCME), sub-partitions obtained from solvents of increasing polarity, and major compounds, as well as their hemolytic, anti-hemolytic, and antioxidant potential. The in vitro cytotoxic activity against the human hepatocarcinoma (HEP-G2) and the murine lymphoma cell line (L5178Y-R) was evaluated using the colorimetric 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay, whereas selectivity indices (SIs) were determined by comparing cytotoxicity against normal African green monkey kidney cells (VERO) and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Hemolytic and anti-hemolytic activities were evaluated on human erythrocytes. The most effective cytotoxic treatment was evaluated for nitric oxide release by J774A.1 macrophages. Antioxidant activity of R. chalepensis material was also determined. Results showed that RCME produced significant (p < 0.05) cytotoxicity in HEP-G2 (IC₅₀ = 1.79 µg/mL) and L5178Y-R (IC₅₀ = 1.60 µg/mL) cells and exhibited high SIs (291.50 and 114.80, respectively). In addition, the n-hexane fraction (RCHF) showed an IC₅₀ of 18.31 µg/mL in HEP-G2 cells and an SI of 9.48 in VERO cells, whereas the chloroform fraction (RCCF) evidenced an IC₅₀ of 1.60 µg/mL in L5178Y-R cells and an SI of 34.27 in PBMC cells. Chalepensin (CHL), rutamarin (RTM), and graveolin (GRV), which are major components of R. chalepensis, showed high activity against L5178Y-R cells, with IC₅₀ of 9.15, 15.13 and SI of 45.08 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, CHL, RTM, and GRV showed SIs of 24.76, 9.98, and 3.52, respectively, when compared with PBMC cells. RCME at concentrations of 125 µg/mL and 250 µg/mL, significantly (p < 0.05) decreased nitrite production in J774A.1 cells, when exposed to lipopolysaccharide. This study demonstrated that RCME showed significant cytotoxic activity against HEP-G2 and L5178Y-R cells, without affecting normal VERO, PBMC, and J774A.1 cells.

Studies on the Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites and Evaluation of Biological Activity of In Vitro Cultures of Ruta montana L. in Temporary Immersion Bioreactors

The present work focuses on in vitro cultures of Ruta montana L. in temporary immersion Plantform^TM bioreactors. The main aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of cultivation time (5 and 6 weeks) and different concentrations (0.1-1.0 mg/L) of plant growth and development regulators (NAA and BAP) on the increase in biomass and the accumulation of secondary metabolites. Consequently, the antioxidant, antibacterial, and antibiofilm potentials of methanol extracts obtained from the in vitro-cultured biomass of R. montana were evaluated. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis was performed to characterize furanocoumarins, furoquinoline alkaloids, phenolic acids, and catechins. The major secondary metabolites in R. montana cultures were coumarins (maximum total content of 1824.3 mg/100 g DM), and the dominant compounds among them were xanthotoxin and bergapten. The maximum content of alkaloids was 561.7 mg/100 g DM. Concerning the antioxidant activity, the extract obtained from the biomass grown on the 0.1/0.1 LS medium variant, with an IC₅₀ 0.90 ± 0.03 mg/mL, showed the best chelating ability among the extracts, while the 0.1/0.1 and 0.5/1.0 LS media variants showed the best antibacterial (MIC range 125-500 µg/mL) and antibiofilm activity against resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains.

Ruta angustifolia Pers. (Narrow-Leaved Fringed Rue): Pharmacological Properties and Phytochemical Profile

The genus Ruta in the family Rutaceae includes about 40 species, such as the well-known plants R. graveolens L. (common rue) or R. chalepensis L. (fringed rue), but also much lesser-known species such as R. angustifolia Pers. (narrow-leaved fringed rue). This rue specie, originating from the Mediterranean region, is well-distributed in Southeast Asia, notably in the Indo-Chinese peninsula and other territories. In some countries, such as Malaysia, the plant is used to treat liver diseases and cancer. Extracts of R. angustifolia display antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic effects. Diverse bioactive natural products have been isolated from the aerial parts of the plant, notably quinoline alkaloids and furocoumarins, which present noticeable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and/or antiproliferative properties. The present review discusses the main pharmacological properties of the plant and its phytoconstituents, with a focus on the anticancer activities evidenced with diverse alkaloids and terpenoids isolated from the aerial parts of the plant. Quinoline alkaloids such as graveoline, kokusaginine, and arborinine have been characterized and their mode of action defined. Arborinine stands as a remarkable inhibitor of histone demethylase LSD1, endowed with promising anticancer activities. Other anticancer compounds, such as the furocoumarins chalepin and rutamarin, have revealed antitumor effects. Their mechanism of action is discussed together with that of other bioactive natural products, including angustifolin and moskachans. Altogether, R. angustifolia Pers. presents a rich phytochemical profile, fully consistent with the traditional use of the plant to treat cancer. This rue species, somewhat neglected, warrant further investigations as a medicinal plant and a source of inspiration for drug discovery and design.

Ruta chalepensis L. In Vitro Cultures as a Source of Bioactive Furanocoumarins and Furoquinoline Alkaloids

Recently, due to the decreasing areas of cultivation and climate change, the use of biotechnological methods to obtain biomass, which is a source of valuable bioactive metabolites, is becoming more and more interesting. In this study, Ruta chalepensis in vitro cultures were investigated in RITA^® temporary immersion bioreactors. Biomass growth and the production of secondary metabolites in 4- and 5-week growth cycles on three variants of the Linsmaier and Skoog (LS) medium (naphthyl-1-acetic acid/6-benzylaminopurine (NAA/BAP): 0.5/1.0, 0.1/0.1, and 1.0/1.0 mg/L) were analyzed. Using high-performance liquid chromatography of methanolic extracts of biomass, the presence of linear furanocoumarins (bergapten, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin) and furoquinoline alkaloids (γ-fagarine, 7-isopentenyloxy-γ-fagarine, and skimmianine) was confirmed. The highest content of linear furanocoumarins (1170 mg/100 g DW (dry weight)) was observed in the LS medium variant containing 0.5/1.0 mg/L NAA/BAP (4-week growth cycle). The highest content of furoquinoline alkaloids (449 mg/100 g DW) was observed in the LS medium variant containing 0.1/0.1 mg/L NAA/BAP (5-week growth cycle). Hence, R. chalepensis bioreactor cultures may be used as a biotechnological source of linear furanocoumarins (xanthotoxin and bergapten) and furoquinoline alkaloids (skimmianine and γ-fagarine).

THE EFFECT OF RUTA GRAVEOLENS L. ETHANOLIC EXTRACTS ON SKIN ISOLATES OF STAPHYLOCOCCI AND PROPIONIBACTERIUM ACNES

OBJECTIVE

The aim: To define antimicrobial properties of 50%, 70% and 90% ethanolic extracts of Ruta graveolens L. against macrolide resistant (MLS-resistant) skin isolates of staphylococci and Propionibacterium acnes, and to determine MIC and MBC of investigated extracts.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and methods: Extracts were prepared by the method of maceration. Bacterial cultures were identified by biochemical microtests. Identification of MLS-resistance type was performed by using disc-diffusion method. The MIC and MBC were determined by serial two-fold dilution of ethanolic extracts of Ruta graveolens L. in MHB and HBB for staphylococci and P. acnes, respectively. Bacterial growth in each well was assayed by absorption at 495 nm, using a spectrophotometer SynergyTMHTX S1LFTA (BioTek Instruments, Inc., USA).

RESULTS

Results: All ethanolic extracts of garden ruta were active against all staphylococci and P. acnes skin isolates and showed exclusively bactericidal activity (MBC/MIC ratios ranged from 1 to 2) against all investigated strains. 90% extract of Ruta graveolens L. showed better results than 50% and 70% extracts - average MIC and MBC concentations for P. acnes strains were 1.38«0.66 mg/mL and for staphylococcal strains average MIC was 2.1«1.16 mg/mL and MBC - 2.86«1.2 mg/mL.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: 50%, 70% and 90% ethanolic garden ruta extracts showed moderate antibacterial activity against main skin pathogens, responsible for acnes vulgaris development - S. epidermidis, S. aureus and P. acnes. No difference in susceptibility between resistance and sensitive strains of staphylococci and P. acnes indicate that acquired MLS-resistance of investigated skin isolates does not affect on the level of their sensitivity to ruta extracts.

Identification of Novel Inhibitor of Enoyl-Acyl Carrier Protein Reductase (InhA) Enzyme in Mycobacterium tuberculosis from Plant-Derived Metabolites: An In Silico Study

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb.) enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase (InhA) is validated as a useful target for tuberculosis therapy and is considered an attractive enzyme to drug discovery. This study aimed to identify the novel inhibitor of the InhA enzyme, a potential target of M.tb. involved in the type II fatty acid biosynthesis pathway that controls mycobacterial cell envelope synthesis. We compiled 80 active compounds from Ruta graveolens and citrus plants belonging to the Rutaceae family for pharmacokinetics and molecular docking analyses. The chemical structures of the 80 phytochemicals and the 3D structure of the target protein were retrieved from the PubChem database and RCSB Protein Data Bank, respectively. The evaluation of druglikeness was performed based on Lipinski’s Rule of Five, while the computed phytochemical properties and molecular descriptors were used to predict the ADMET of the compounds. Amongst these, 11 pharmacokinetically-screened compounds were further examined by performing molecular docking analysis with an InhA target using AutoDock 4.2. The docking results showed that gravacridonediol, a major glycosylated natural alkaloid from Ruta graveolens, might possess a promising inhibitory potential against InhA, with a binding energy (B.E.) of −10.80 kcal/mole and inhibition constant (Ki) of 600.24 nM. These contrast those of the known inhibitor triclosan, which has a B.E. of −6.69 kcal/mole and Ki of 12.43 µM. The binding efficiency of gravacridonediol was higher than that of the well-known inhibitor triclosan against the InhA target. The present study shows that the identified natural compound gravacridonediol possesses drug-like properties and also holds promise in inhibiting InhA, a key target enzyme of M.tb.

Phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory evaluation of Algerian Ruta graveolens L

Plants constitute a valuable source of natural antioxidants such as polyphenols and are responsible for exhibiting many biologically significant functions. Ruta species including Ruta chalepensis L. and Ruta graveolens L are widespread species in Algeria and are used as medicinal plants to treat various diseases; however, so far, most of the conducted studies focused on analyzing alkaloids and essential oils mostly on R. chalepensis. The aim of the present research is to investigate the phenolic profile of the aerial parts of Ruta graveolens. L from Algeria and assess its in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The total polyphenols and flavonoids were assessed using colorimetric methods, and the individual polyphenols were identified and quantified using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS. The antioxidant activity was evaluated with DPPH and β-carotene tests, and the anti-inflammatory activity with inhibition of bovine serum albumin denaturation and HRBC membrane stabilization methods. The results showed that Ruta graveolens extract is rich in phenolic compounds with a total phenol and flavonoid contents of 41.63±0.394 mg GAE/gE and 13.97±0.33 mg EQ/gE, respectively. Nine phenolic compounds were determined, including three phenolic acids and six flavonoids. Rutin was the major phenolic compound in Ruta graveolens (464.95 µg/g), followed by syringic acid (179.74 µg/g), and naringenin (109.78 µg/g). R. graveolens phenolic extract also showed good antioxidant activity with values of 0.77 mM TE/g DW and 0.37 mM β-CE/ g DW with DPPH and β-carotene tests, respectively. For the anti-inflammatory activity, the highest tested concentration (200 μg/mL) gave 50.61% of inhibition of the denaturation of albumin and 44.12% of membrane stabilization.

Phenolic Characterization Using cLC-DAD Analysis and Evaluation of In Vitro and In Vivo Pharmacological Activities of Ruta tuberculata Forssk

The perennial aromatic plant Ruta tuberculata Forssk (Rutaceae) has been traditionally used by Mediterranean peoples as folk medicine against several types of disease to treat diverse illness. The objective of this work is to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities of the aqueous (RAE) and methanolic (MeOH) 80% (RME) extracts of Algerian R. tuberculata aerial parts. Antioxidant potential, neuro-protective and anti-arthritic activities were investigated in vitro using six antioxidant approaches and by determining acetyl-cholinesterase and bovine albumin denaturation inhibitory capacities, respectively. Furthermore, in vivo anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated on EtOH-induced gastric mucosal damage and carrageenan-induced paw edema models in mice. Moreover, bio-compounds’ contents were also quantified using spectrophotometric and cLC-DAD methods. Both in vivo and in vitro investigations showed remarkable antioxidant activity of Ruta tuberculata Forssk, while methanolic extract (RME) of Ruta tuberculata Forssk exhibited more significant neuro-protective and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the antiulcer activity was more pronounced with RAE of R. tuberculata, which suggests that this plant can be considered as a natural resource of potent bioactive compounds that may act as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents, which underlines the importance of incorporating them in therapies in order to treat various diseases linked to oxidative stress, and they may also provide crucial data for the development of new anticholinesterase drugs to improve neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s.

Ruta montana (L.) L.: An insight into its medicinal value, phytochemistry, biological properties, and toxicity

Ruta montana (RM) is a medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) used in folk medicine, especially in North Africa, to treat digestive, infectious, respiratory, neurological, gynecological, and diabetic diseases. The current work aims to review the scientifically validated ethno-medicinal usage, bioactivities and phytochemistry of RM, in order to provide data support for further investigations. Data were procured from PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and PubChem. The present study revealed that RM could be used to manage many diseases involved in public health problems, such as diabetes, hypertension, neurological disorders, infections, reproductive system disorders, and cancer. It might also replace chemical insecticides and fungicides since it exhibits antifungal, insecticidal, and larvicidal properties. RM extracts also contain mainly coumarins and alkaloids. The volatile oil of RM is characterized by an abundance of ketone compounds and 2-undecanone as major constituents. In the case of a high-dose administration, RM infusion can cause poisoning through the oral path. Thus, in-depth in vivo pharmacological studies and clinical trials are needed to transmute the traditional applications of RM into scientific-based information.

A Candidate for Health Promotion, Disease Prevention and Treatment, Common Rue (Ruta graveolens L.), an Important Medicinal plant in Traditional Medicine

BACKGROUND

Ruta graveolens L. belongs to Rutaceae; it is a semi-wood perennial or a small evergreen sub-shrub, which is native to Southern Europe, West of Asia and Northern Africa.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this manuscript was to outline the most notable traditional and modern advantages and pharmaceutical benefits of common rue.

METHODS

The manuscript covers review articles, randomized control experiments, analytical studies and observations, which have been gathered from different sources such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Science Direct and PubMed. A review of the literature was carried out using the keywords rutin, Ruta graveolens L., rue, common rune, coumarin, natural products and pharmaceutical benefits.

RESULTS

Rue contains quinoline alkaloids, such as graveoline and graveolinine, acridone alkaloids, such as furacridone and gravacridone, the furanoquinoline dictamnine, coumaris, such as gravelliferone, isorutarin, rutacultin, rutaretin, and suberenone, and the furanocoumarins 5-methoxypsoralen (bergapten) and 8-methoxypsoralen (xanthotoxine). Most of its aromatic and medicinal properties are from its rutin, and essential oil. It has been used in folk medicines as a stimulant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, anti-androgenic activity, anti-hyperglycemic effects, anti-hyperlipidemic effects, xanthine oxidase inhibition activity, anticancer properties.

CONCLUSION

According to pharmacological and phytochemical advantages, pennyroyal shows its importance as a medicinal plant in both modern medicinal science and traditional medicine.

Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Ethnopharmacology in the Main Transhumance Areas of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain)

In this study, we document the practices of ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnopharmacology in the context of traditional transhumance routes that cross Castilla La Mancha from north to south. Transhumance is a type of grazing system that allows advantage to be taken of winter pastures (wintering places) and summer pastures by seasonal movement, twice a year, of cattle and their shepherds. Our study is based on over 200 interviews (from 1994 to 2021) conducted in 86 localities along eight major transhumance routes “cañadas reales” and 25 other minor transhumance routes, and involved 210 informants, 89 single and 121 groups, and 562 individuals, of which the majority were men. Sixty-three recorded pathologies and their treatments are discussed. Two hundred and two species and substances, belonging to 92 different families, have been recorded from the interviews, of which most are plants. Amid the toxic plant species, the most cited in the interviews are Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss., Lupinus angustifolius L., and Oenanthe crocata L. Some of the species reported as toxic were reservoirs of pathogens or markers for dangerous areas. One of the fields most widely covered in our study is that of prevention, protection, and control of endo- and ectoparasites. This control is carried out mainly by means of aromatic plants. As a polyvalent species, Daphne gnidium L. is outstanding, and it contributes one-tenth of the records of our study. Among the species of fundamentally therapeutic use, Cistus ladanifer L. stands out by far. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) based on the repertories of ingredients, separates the routes whose most important sections run through siliceous terrain with its characteristic flora, especially in the provinces of Ciudad Real and Toledo, from the routes that run through the limestone terrain of Albacete and Cuenca, and link the Eastern Mancha and the “Serranía de Cuenca” with Andalusia and the Spanish Levant.

Phytochemical Characterization, and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Agitated Cultures of Three Rue Species: Ruta chalepensis, Ruta corsica, and Ruta graveolens

The in vitro cultures of the following three species of the genus Ruta were investigated: R. chalepensis, R. corsica, and R. graveolens. The dynamics of biomass growth and accumulation of secondary metabolites in the 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-week growth cycle were analysed. The antioxidant capacity of the methanol extracts obtained from the biomass of the in vitro cultures was also assessed by different in vitro assays: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil (DPPH), reducing power, and Fe²⁺ chelating activity assays. Moreover, a preliminary screening of the antimicrobial potential of the extracts was performed. The extracts were phytochemically characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which highlighted the presence of linear furanocoumarins (bergapten, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin) and furoquinoline alkaloids (γ-fagarine, 7-isopentenyloxy-γ-fagarine, and skimmianine). The dominant group of compounds in all the cultures was coumarins (maximum content 1031.5 mg/100 g DW (dry weight), R. chalepensis, 5-week growth cycle). The results of the antioxidant tests showed that the extracts of the three species had varied antioxidant capacity: in particular, the R. chalepensis extract exhibited the best radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ = 1.665 ± 0.009 mg/mL), while the R. graveolens extract displayed the highest chelating property (IC₅₀ = 0.671 ± 0.013 mg/mL). Finally, all the extracts showed good activity against Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values of 250 μg/mL for the R. corsica extract and 500 μg/mL for both R. graveolens and R. chalepensis extracts.

In Vitro Pharmacological Screening of Essential Oils from Baccharis parvidentata and Lippia origanoides Growing in Brazil

In this study, the in vitro antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities of essential oil from Baccharis parvidentata Malag. (EO-Bp) and Lippia origanoides Kunth (EO-Lo) were explored. The relevant effects were observed against the parasitic protozoans Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania amazonensis (ranging 0.6 to 39.7 µg/mL) and malignant MCF-7, MCF-7/HT, 22Rv1, and A431 cell lines (ranging 6.1 to 31.5 µg/mL). In parallel, EO-Bp showed better selective indexes in comparison with EO-Lo against peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice and MRC-5 cell line. In conclusion, EO-Lo is known to show a wide range of health benefits that could be added as another potential use of this oil with the current study. In the case of EO-Bp, the wide spectrum of its activities against protozoal parasites and malignant cells, as well as its selectivity in comparison with non-malignant cells, could suggest an interesting candidate for further tests as a new therapeutic alternative.

Enhanced Accumulation of Biologically Active Coumarin and Furanocoumarins in Callus Culture and Field-grown Plants of Ruta chalepensis Through LED Light-treatment

Ruta chalepensis, a medicinal plant, produces biologically active coumarins (CRs) and furanocoumarins (FCRs). However, their yield is quite low in cultivated plants. In this work, the influence of light emitting diodes (LEDs) was investigated on the accumulation of CRs and FCRs in the callus cultures and field-grown plants of R. chalepensis. Among the various tested wavelengths of LED lights, maximum accumulation of CR and FCRs was recorded under blue LED treatment in both the callus cultures as well as field-grown plants as compared to respective controls treated with white LED. Metabolite analyses of LED-treated field-grown plants showed that highest concentrations of CR (umbelliferone, 2.8-fold), and FCRs (psoralen, 2.3-fold; xanthotoxin, 3.8-fold; bergapten, 1.16-fold) were accumulated upon blue LED-treatment for six days. CR and FCRs contents were also analyzed in the blue- and red-LED-treated in vitro callus tissue. Upon blue LED-treatment, callus accumulated significantly high levels of umbelliferone (48.6 ± 1.2 µg/g DW), psoralen (370.12 ± 10.6 µg/g DW) and xanthotoxin (10.16 ± 0.48 µg/g DW). These findings imply that blue LED-treatment is a viable option as a non-invasive and low-cost elicitation technology for the enhanced production of biologically active CR and FCRs in field-grown plants and callus cultures of R. chalepensis.

Chemical Profile of Ruta graveolens, Evaluation of the Antioxidant and Antibacterial Potential of Its Essential Oil, and Molecular Docking Simulations

The research aimed to investigate the chemical composition and antioxidant and antibacterial potential of the essential oil (EO) isolated from the aerial parts (flowers, leaves, and stems) of Ruta graveolens L., growing in western Romania. Ruta graveolens L. essential oil (RGEO) was isolated by steam distillation (0.29% v/w), and the content was assessed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Findings revealed that 2-Undecanone (76.19%) and 2-Nonanone (7.83%) followed by 2-Undecanol (1.85%) and 2-Tridecanone (1.42%) are the main detected compounds of the oil. The RGEO exerted broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal effects, S. pyogenes, S. aureus, and S. mutans being the most susceptible tested strains. The antioxidant activity of RGEO was assessed by peroxide and thiobarbituric acid value, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), and β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching testing. The results indicated moderate radical scavenging and relative antioxidative activity in DPPH and β-carotene bleaching tests. However, between the 8th and 16th days of the incubation period, the inhibition of primary oxidation compounds induced by the RGEO was significantly stronger (p < 0.001) than butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). Molecular docking analysis highlighted that a potential antimicrobial mechanism of the RGEO could be exerted through the inhibition of D-Alanine-d-alanine ligase (DDl) by several RGEO components. Docking analysis also revealed that a high number RGEO components could exert a potential in vitro protein-targeted antioxidant effect through xanthine oxidase and lipoxygenase inhibition. Consequently, RGEO could be a new natural source of antiseptics and antioxidants, representing an option for the use of synthetic additives in the food and pharmaceutical industry.

Ruta Essential Oils: Composition and Bioactivities

Ruta L. is a typical genus of the citrus family, Rutaceae Juss. and comprises ca. 40 different species, mainly distributed in the Mediterranean region. Ruta species have long been used in traditional medicines as an abortifacient and emmenagogue and for the treatment of lung diseases and microbial infections. The genus Ruta is rich in essential oils, which predominantly contain aliphatic ketones, e.g., 2-undecanone and 2-nonanone, but lack any significant amounts of terpenes. Three Ruta species, Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta montana L., have been extensively studied for the composition of their essential oils and several bioactivities, revealing their potential medicinal and agrochemical applications. This review provides a systematic evaluation and critical appraisal of publications available in the literature on the composition and bioactivities of the essential oils obtained from Ruta species and includes a brief outlook of the potential applications of nanotechnology and chitosan-based products of Ruta essential oils.

Furanocoumarins from Ruta chalepensis with Amebicide Activity

Entamoeba histolytica (protozoan; family Endomoebidae) is the cause of amoebiasis, a disease related to high morbidity and mortality. Nowadays, this illness is considered a significant public health issue in developing countries. In addition, parasite resistance to conventional medicinal treatment has increased in recent years. Traditional medicine around the world represents a valuable source of alternative treatment for many parasite diseases. In a previous paper, we communicated about the antiprotozoal activity in vitro of the methanolic (MeOH) extract of Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) against E. histolytica. The plant is extensively employed in Mexican traditional medicine. The following workup of the MeOH extract of R. chalepensis afforded the furocoumarins rutamarin (1) and chalepin (2), which showed high antiprotozoal activity on Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites employing in vitro tests (IC₅₀ values of 6.52 and 28.95 µg/mL, respectively). Therefore, we offer a full scientific report about the bioguided isolation and the amebicide activity of chalepin and rutamarin.

The diterpene from Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski, kaurenoic acid, reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced peritonitis and pain in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski is a plant species belonging to the Asteraceae family. Kaurenoid acid (KA) is a diterpene metabolite and one of the active ingredients of Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski. Extracts containing KA are used in traditional medicine to treat pain, inflammation, and infection.

AIM

The goal of the present study was to investigate the in vivo effects of KA (1-10 mg/kg, per oral gavage) upon LPS inoculation in mice by intraperitoneal (i.p.) or intraplantar (i.pl.; subcutaneous plantar injection) routes at the dose of 200 ng (200 μL or 25 μL, respectively).

METHODS

In LPS paw inflammation, mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia MPO activity and oxidative imbalance (TBARS, GSH, ABTS and FRAP assays) were evaluated. In LPS peritonitis we evaluated leukocyte migration, cytokine production, oxidative stress, and NF-κB activation.

RESULTS

KA inhibited LPS-induced mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia, MPO activity and modulated redox status in the mice paw. Pre- and post-treatment with KA inhibited migration of neutrophils and monocytes in LPS peritonitis. KA inhibited the pro-inflammatory/hyperalgesic cytokine (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-33) production while enhanced anti-inflammatory/analgesic cytokine IL-10 in peritoneal cavity. In agreement with the effect of KA over pro-inflammatory cytokines it inhibited oxidative stress (total ROS, superoxide production and superoxide positive cells) and NF-κB activation during peritonitis.

CONCLUSION

KA efficiently dampens LPS-induced peritonitis and hyperalgesia in vivo, suggesting it as a suitable candidate to control excessive inflammation and pain during gram-negative bacterial infections and bringing mechanistic explanation to the ethnopharmacological application of Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski in inflammation and infection.

Misuse, consequences and phototoxic skin-related effects of Rutaceae: a comprehensive literature review

Ruta is a common plant growing in Italy and in the Mediterranean area. It has been used in popular tradition with different aims, ranging from therapeutic to esoteric purposes. However, the plant is still used as a common remedy in some of present-day rural and urban communities and it can be found in gardens all over Europe. Ruta's photosensitizing effect has been described in the literature and seems to be mediated by furanocoumarins. We collected data from the 18 case-reports for a total of 32 patients that we included in our analysis, assessing demographic variables, clinical findings, diagnosis, time of onset of lesions, time of resolution and therapy. The main aim of this work was to outline the clinical presentation, therapeutic management and demography of phytophototoxic reactions from contact with Ruta in order to suggest the correct diagnostic approach and disease recognition, as well as its possible prevention.