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Duff N, Salmon K, Macaskill A. An experimental approach: Investigating the directive function of autobiographical memory. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:509-524. [PMID: 37874487 PMCID: PMC11021244 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-023-01480-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Why do we have autobiographical memory and how is it useful? Researchers have proposed a directive function; our experiences guide our behavior, particularly when faced with an open-ended problem. Two experiments (one between-participant and one mixed design) were therefore conducted to test whether success autobiographical memories - any experience when the participant felt successful and competent - are helpful for generating solutions to problem scenarios. One research aim was to experimentally test the directive function as current experimental evidence is limited and results are mixed. Consequently, it is unclear if and how autobiographical memory is helpful for open-ended problem solving. Another aim was to test whether self-efficacy is an important factor that supports open-ended problem solving and thus the directive function. Although success memories enhanced self-ratings of self-efficacy across both experiments, in samples of undergraduate students there was no experimental effect of success autobiographical memories on problem solving. Instead, some participants across the memory and control conditions in both experiments, even when not instructed, recalled autobiographical memories related to the problem scenarios presented in the problem-solving task, and these participants did better at problem solving than those who did not. This may hint to a directive function and is perhaps one reason why there is no experimental effect. Sample and experimental design differences are discussed as potential factors that may contribute to non-significant effects in this study but significant effects in others. Our results highlight the complexity of the directive function, and the difficulty of experimentally testing how autobiographical memory directs behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicky Duff
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand.
| | - Karen Salmon
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Anne Macaskill
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
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Biondolillo MJ, Carr KA, Wojcik K, Curry DC, Epstein LH. Effects of Episodic Memory Recall on Reinforcing Value of Physical Activity. Psychol Rep 2023:332941231210213. [PMID: 37890092 DOI: 10.1177/00332941231210213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Many people prefer a sedentary versus an active lifestyle and have difficulty completing sufficient physical activity to improve health. While exercise can be a powerful reinforcer for some people, many prefer to be sedentary. The relative reinforcing value of physical activity (RRVPA) is influenced by a person's learning history with positive experiences strengthening the motivation to be active. Episodic memories may be critical to determining RRVPA, or RRV of different types of positive behaviors. METHOD As a potential way to increase RRVPA we examined if recalling a positive episodic memory would affect RRVPA. One hundred and thirty seven adult participants completed measures of reinforcement history and memory functions and then recalled a single positive episode of either a physical activity or of a cognitively enriching activity, rated subjective memory qualities, and completed tasks to measure the RRV of both types of activity. RESULTS Recalling a positive episodic memory increased RRV for the respective activity, and changes in RRVPA were moderated by how much the memory satisfies a basic psychological need. CONCLUSIONS This research demonstrates the impact of episodic memory on RRVPA, which could be leveraged to aid behavior change efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew J Biondolillo
- Division of Behavioral Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Katelyn A Carr
- Division of Behavioral Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Kathleen Wojcik
- Division of Behavioral Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Damante C Curry
- Division of Behavioral Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Leonard H Epstein
- Division of Behavioral Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Buffalo, NY, USA
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Hotchin V, West K. Reflecting on nostalgic, positive, and novel experiences increases state Openness. J Pers 2020; 89:258-275. [PMID: 32746495 DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Personality change is a growing field of interest, but relatively few studies have examined causes of change in Openness. We investigated whether it is possible to influence state Openness, and through what mechanisms this effect may occur. METHOD In two experiments (Study 1: N = 144, Mage = 36.4, 58% female, 88% White; Study 2: N = 269, Mage = 34.0, 60% female, 91% White), participants reflected on and wrote about a personal experience requested to be either: nostalgic; positive and novel (Study 1); positive or novel (Study 2); or ordinary. They rated the events for nostalgia, positivity, novelty, and sociality, and completed measures of state positive affect, self-esteem, social connectedness, meaning in life, and state Openness. RESULTS Participants who recalled positive and/or novel events reported greater state Openness than those who recalled ordinary events. In Study 1, this also applied to those recalling nostalgic events. Event ratings of positivity (both studies), nostalgia and novelty (Study 2) independently predicted state Openness. State positive affect and self-esteem were independent predictors in both studies, suggesting possible indirect paths. CONCLUSIONS Reflecting on nostalgic, positive, and novel experiences can increase state Openness. This finding may be useful for interventions targeting trait-level change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Hotchin
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
| | - Keon West
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
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Merson B, Pezdek K. Target-related autobiographical memories affect dietary intake intentions .. Memory 2019; 27:1438-1450. [PMID: 31587609 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2019.1674335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although there is evidence that autobiographical memory (AM) recall impacts behaviour in multiple domains, the mechanisms for this effect are unclear. Two experiments examined how AM Frame and Relatedness to target behaviour affect intention to control future dietary intake. Participants completed an AM task where they recalled success or fail-framed memories of behaviour in the target domain (dietary intake), a related domain (exercise), and an unrelated domain (work). Next they completed questionnaires about attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavioural intention for controlling dietary intake. In Experiment 1, Frame and Relatedness of AMs recalled did not affect attitudes or self-efficacy ratings of controlling dietary intake. However, Related AMs resulted in higher intention ratings to control future dietary intake compared to Unrelated AMs. Experiment 2 replicated these results for attitude and self-efficacy, but showed no effect on behavioural intention. A mini-meta analysis was conducted to clarify the effect of AM recall on intention. This analysis confirmed a significant effect of AM Relatedness on intention ratings (meta-analysis Cohen's d = .25, Z = 2.54, p = .011). These results provide evidence that recalling related AM can affect dietary behaviour intentions directly, without changes attitudes or ratings of personal control regarding dietary intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Merson
- Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University , Claremont , USA
| | - Kathy Pezdek
- Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University , Claremont , USA
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Abstract
Decades of research show that people are susceptible to developing false memories. But if they do so in one task, are they likely to do so in a different one? The answer: "No". In the current research, a large number of participants took part in three well-established false memory paradigms (a misinformation task, the Deese-Roediger-McDermott [DRM] list learning paradigm, and an imagination inflation exercise) as well as completed several individual difference measures. Results indicate that many correlations between false memory variables in all three inter-paradigm comparisons are null, though some small, positive, significant correlations emerged. Moreover, very few individual difference variables significantly correlated with false memories, and any significant correlations were rather small. It seems likely, therefore, that there is no false memory "trait". In other words, no one type of person seems especially prone, or especially resilient, to the ubiquity of memory distortion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Nichols
- a School of Social Sciences , Nanyang Technological University , Singapore , Singapore
| | - Elizabeth F Loftus
- b Psychology and Social Behavior , University of California , Irvine , CA , USA
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Thomassin K, Raftery-Helmer J, Hersh J. A Review of Behavioral Observation Coding Approaches for the Trier Social Stress Test for Children. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2610. [PMID: 30619010 PMCID: PMC6308136 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) has become one of the most widely-used protocols for inducing moderate psychosocial stress in laboratory settings. Observational coding has been used to measure a range of behavioral responses to the TSST including performance, reactions to the task, and markers of stress induced by the task, with clear advantages given increased objectivity of observational measurement over self-report measures. The current review systematically examined all TSST and TSST-related studies with children and adolescents published since the original work of Kirschbaum et al. (1993) to identify behavioral observation coding approaches for the TSST. The search resulted in 29 published articles, dissertations, and master's theses with a wide range of coding approaches used. The take-home finding from the current review is that there is no standard way to code the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C), which appears to stem from the uniqueness of investigators' research questions and sample demographics. This lack of standardization prohibits conclusive comparisons between studies and samples. We discuss relevant implications and offer suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jacqueline Hersh
- Department of psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, United States
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Nourkova VV, Vasilenko DA. On the advantage of autobiographical memory pliability: implantation of positive self-defining memories reduces trait anxiety. Memory 2017; 26:869-881. [PMID: 29284340 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1420195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This paper is devoted to the mechanism of the positive construction of autobiographical memory. Positive construction consists of the spontaneous transformation of memories in the direction of the subjective enhancement of self-competence in past activities to anticipate improvement over time. We speculated that trait anxiety may indicate a failure to exhibit this mechanism that results in a deficit of affirmative self-esteem. We hypothesised that the implantation of positive self-defining memories in anxiety-evoking domains would decrease trait anxiety. One hundred twenty adults recollected three negative self-defining memories. Then, half of the participants imagined episodes of desired behaviour that differed from the originally recollected ones either in discussion or in hypnosis. Thirty participants experienced a hypnotic state without any references to memories, and the rest formed the control group. Subjects from the "Memory Implantation in Hypnosis" group became unable to distinguish the originally reported memories from the imagined ones, exhibited decreased trait anxiety scores after a 4-month delay, and reported enhanced self-esteem. In contrast, the participants from the "Hypnosis with no reference to the past" group exhibited decreased scores at a short delay but later returned to their original scores. These findings highlight the power of cured episodic-like autobiographical memory for updating the self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika V Nourkova
- a Department of General Psychology , Lomonosov Moscow State University , Moscow , Russia
| | - Darya A Vasilenko
- a Department of General Psychology , Lomonosov Moscow State University , Moscow , Russia
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Ford JH, Gaesser B, DiBiase H, Berro T, Young L, Kensinger E. Heroic Memory: Remembering the Details of Others' Heroism in the Aftermath of a Traumatic Public Event Can Foster Our Own Prosocial Response. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Brendan Gaesser
- Department of Psychology; University at Albany, State University of New York; Albany USA
| | - Haley DiBiase
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
| | - Tala Berro
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
| | - Liane Young
- Department of Psychology; Boston College; Chestnut Hill USA
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Karnaze MM, Levine LJ, Schneider M. Misremembering Past Affect Predicts Adolescents' Future Affective Experience During Exercise. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2017; 88:316-328. [PMID: 28494196 PMCID: PMC5844468 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2017.1317322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Increasing physical activity among adolescents is a public health priority. Because people are motivated to engage in activities that make them feel good, this study examined predictors of adolescents' feelings during exercise. METHOD During the 1st semester of the school year, we assessed 6th-grade students' (N = 136) cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise. Participants also reported their affect during a cardiovascular fitness test and recalled their affect during the fitness test later that semester. During the 2nd semester, the same participants rated their affect during a moderate-intensity exercise task. RESULTS Affect reported during the moderate-intensity exercise task was predicted by cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise and by misremembering affect during the fitness test as more positive than it actually was. This memory bias mediated the association between appraising exercise as important and experiencing a positive change in affect during the moderate-intensity exercise task. CONCLUSION These findings highlight the roles of both cognitive appraisals and memory as factors that may influence affect during exercise. Future work should explore whether affect during exercise can be modified by targeting appraisals and memories related to exercise experiences.
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Briñol P, Petty RE, Requero B. Aggressive primes can increase reliance on positive and negative thoughts affecting self-attitudes. SELF AND IDENTITY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2016.1255251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Wang J, Otgaar H, Howe ML, Smeets T, Merckelbach H, Nahouli Z. Undermining belief in false memories leads to less efficient problem-solving behaviour. Memory 2016; 25:910-921. [PMID: 27805475 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2016.1249888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Memories of events for which the belief in the occurrence of those events is undermined, but recollection is retained, are called nonbelieved memories (NBMs). The present experiments examined the effects of NBMs on subsequent problem-solving behaviour. In Experiment 1, we challenged participants' beliefs in their memories and examined whether NBMs affected subsequent solution rates on insight-based problems. True and false memories were elicited using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Then participants' belief in true and false memories was challenged by telling them the item had not been presented. We found that when the challenge led to undermining belief in false memories, fewer problems were solved than when belief was not challenged. In Experiment 2, a similar procedure was used except that some participants solved the problems one week rather than immediately after the feedback. Again, our results showed that undermining belief in false memories resulted in lower problem solution rates. These findings suggest that for false memories, belief is an important agent in whether memories serve as effective primes for immediate and delayed problem-solving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqin Wang
- a Department of Clinical Psychological Science , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
| | - Henry Otgaar
- a Department of Clinical Psychological Science , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands.,b Department of Psychology , City, University of London , London , UK
| | - Mark L Howe
- a Department of Clinical Psychological Science , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands.,b Department of Psychology , City, University of London , London , UK
| | - Tom Smeets
- a Department of Clinical Psychological Science , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
| | - Harald Merckelbach
- a Department of Clinical Psychological Science , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands
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Nash RA, Berkowitz SR, Roche S. Public Attitudes on the Ethics of Deceptively Planting False Memories to Motivate Healthy Behavior. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 30:885-897. [PMID: 28111495 PMCID: PMC5215583 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have proposed that planting false memories could have positive behavioral consequences. The idea of deceptively planting ‘beneficial’ false memories outside of the laboratory raises important ethical questions, but how might the general public appraise this moral dilemma? In two studies, participants from the USA and UK read about a fictional ‘false‐memory therapy’ that led people to adopt healthy behaviors. Participants then reported their attitudes toward the acceptability of this therapy, via scale‐rating (both studies) and open‐text (study 2) responses. The data revealed highly divergent responses to this contentious issue, ranging from abject horror to unqualified enthusiasm. Moreover, the responses shed light on conditions that participants believed would make the therapy less or more ethical. Whether or not deceptively planting memories outside the lab could ever be justifiable, these studies add valuable evidence to scientific and societal debates on neuroethics, whose relevance to memory science is increasingly acute. Copyright © 2016 The Authors Applied Cognitive Psychology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Nash
- School of Life and Health SciencesAston UniversityBirminghamUK
| | - Shari R. Berkowitz
- College of Business Administration and Public PolicyCalifornia State University, Dominguez HillsCarsonCAUSA
| | - Simon Roche
- School of PsychologyUniversity of SurreyGuildfordUK
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Selimbegović L, Régner I, Huguet P, Chatard A. On the power of autobiographical memories: from threat and challenge appraisals to actual behaviour. Memory 2015; 24:1382-9. [PMID: 26564245 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2015.1111908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Autobiographical memories are a major feature of mental life in humans. However, research on the influence of autobiographical recall on actual behaviour is scarce. We predicted and found that general memories of failure and specific memories of success resulted in worse performance than general memories of success and specific memories of failure. This performance pattern was mediated by task appraisal, suggesting that autobiographical memories (of failure and success) impact performance by shaping the perception of the upcoming task. Combined with the fact that these effects occurred even when the content of autobiographical memories was unrelated to the upcoming task, the present research represents an important step forward in understanding how autobiographical recall influences actual behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Selimbegović
- a Center for Research on Cognition and Learning (CeRCA) , UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers and National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) , Poitiers , France
| | - Isabelle Régner
- b Laboratory for Cognitive Psychology , UMR CNRS 7290, University of Aix-Marseille and National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) , Marseille , France
| | - Pascal Huguet
- b Laboratory for Cognitive Psychology , UMR CNRS 7290, University of Aix-Marseille and National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) , Marseille , France
| | - Armand Chatard
- a Center for Research on Cognition and Learning (CeRCA) , UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers and National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) , Poitiers , France
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Bernstein DM, Scoboria A, Arnold R. The consequences of suggesting false childhood food events. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2015; 156:1-7. [PMID: 25613303 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We combined data across eight published experiments (N=1369) to examine the formation and consequences of false autobiographical beliefs and memories. Our path models revealed that the formation of false autobiographical belief fully mediated the pathway between suggesting to people that they had experienced a positive or negative food-related event in the past and current preference for that food. Suggestion indirectly affected intention to eat the food via change in autobiographical belief. The development of belief with and without memory produced similar changes in food preferences and behavior intention, indicating that belief in the event drives changes in suggestion-related attitudes. Finally, positive suggestions (e.g., "you loved asparagus the first time you tried it") yielded stronger effects than negative suggestions (e.g., "you got sick eating egg salad"). These findings show that false autobiographical suggestions lead to the development of autobiographical beliefs, which in turn, have consequences for one's attitudes and behaviors.
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Nash RA, Wheeler RL, Hope L. On the persuadability of memory: Is changing people's memories no more than changing their minds? Br J Psychol 2014; 106:308-26. [PMID: 24898340 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The observation of parallels between the memory distortion and persuasion literatures leads, quite logically, to the appealing notion that people can be 'persuaded' to change their memories. Indeed, numerous studies show that memory can be influenced and distorted by a variety of persuasive tactics, and the theoretical accounts commonly used by researchers to explain episodic and autobiographical memory distortion phenomena can generally predict and explain these persuasion effects. Yet, despite these empirical and theoretical overlaps, explicit reference to persuasion and attitude-change research in the memory distortion literature is surprisingly rare. In this paper, we argue that stronger theoretical foundations are needed to draw the memory distortion and persuasion literatures together in a productive direction. We reason that theoretical approaches to remembering that distinguish (false) beliefs in the occurrence of events from (false) memories of those events - compatible with a source monitoring approach - would be beneficial to this end. Such approaches, we argue, would provide a stronger platform to use persuasion findings to enhance the psychological understanding of memory distortion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Nash
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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Biondolillo MJ, Pillemer DB. Using memories to motivate future behaviour: an experimental exercise intervention. Memory 2014; 23:390-402. [PMID: 24571515 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2014.889709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study tested a novel memory-based experimental intervention to increase exercise activity. Undergraduate students completed a two-part online survey ostensibly regarding college activity choices. At Time 1, they completed questionnaires that included assessments of exercise-related attitudes, motivation and self-reported behaviours. Next, they described a memory of a positive or negative experience that would increase their motivation to exercise; students in a control condition did not receive a memory prompt. Finally, they rated their intentions to exercise in the future. Eight days following Time 1, students received a Time 2 survey that included an assessment of their self-reported exercise during the prior week. Students in the positive memory condition reported higher levels of subsequent exercise than those in the control condition; students in the negative memory condition reported intermediate levels of exercise. Activating a positive motivational memory had a significant effect on students' self-reported exercise activity even after controlling for prior attitudes, motivation and exercise activity.
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