Haptoglobin Quantitation in Serum Samples from Clinically Normal and Clinically Abnormal Horses

Acute phase protein concentrations following serial procaine penicillin G injections in horses

BACKGROUND

Acute phase protein (APP) measurement is used to detect inflammation. Intramuscular (IM) injections could cause tissue injury and induce an acute phase response (APR).

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of IM procaine penicillin G (PPG) injections on APP concentrations in horses.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective longitudinal design.

METHODS

PPG was administered intramuscularly to six horses, twice daily, for 5 days. Plasma fibrinogen (FIB), serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (HAP), creatine kinase (CK), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were quantified daily for 5 days before the first injection, during the course of administration, and for 4 days after the final dose. Analytes were quantified every other day for the remaining 16 days. Data were compared using a parametric or non-parametric repeated measures ANOVA and a Tukey's or Mann-Whitney rank sum test, respectively. Significance was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

CK was increased over baseline (mean ± SD: 200 ± 74 IU/L) on Days 1-6 (p < 0.001 to p = 0.02, mean ± SD: 723-1177 ± 355-544 IU/L) and AST was increased above baseline (mean ± SD: 233 ± 58 IU/L) on Days 2-7 and 10 (p < 0.001 to p = 0.05, mean ± SD: 307-437 ± 79-146 IU/L). Increased FIB was noted over baseline (mean ± SD: 177 ± 30 mg/dl) on Days 6-8 and 10 (p = 0.02 to p = 0.03, mean ± SD: 234-252 ± 33-49 mg/dl). SAA was increased above baseline (mean ± SD: 4.7 ± 2.9) on Day 6 (p = 0.02, mean ± SD: 113 ± 186 μg/ml). There was no change in HAP.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Healthy horses were used, small sample size, and a lack of a negative control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Serial intramuscular procaine penicillin G (IM PPG) injections may result in increased positive APP concentrations in horses and this must be considered when these test results are interpreted.

Association of the severity of colic in horses with oxidative stress biomarkers, acute-phase proteins, and certain trace elements

Sixty-one horses were enrolled in this study and divided into 3 different groups according to their severity of colic (heart rate, oral mucous membrane color, and abdominal distention): a strangulating colic (SC) group (n=21), non-strangulating colic (NC) group (n=20), and control group (n=20) consisting of randomly selected normal horses without signs of colic. The serum concentrations of haptoglobin, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), zinc, iron, and copper were evaluated in all horses. The average concentration of TNFα in the SC group was higher than that in the control group (P<0.001). The TNFα concentration was higher in the NC group compared with the control group (P<0.001). Furthermore, the average concentration of TNFα tended to be higher in the SC group compared with the NC group (P=0.052). The average concentration of haptoglobin in the SC group was higher than that in the control group (P<0.001). The average concentration of NO was higher in the SC group compared with the NC group. (P=0.016) The average concentration of MDA was higher in the SC group compared with the control group (P=0.042). Furthermore, the concentration of MDA was higher in the SC group compared with the NC group (P=0.048). TNFα in horses with signs of colic may be a reliable indicator of prognosis and the severity of clinical signs. The haptoglobin concentration may be a useful marker in cases where animals are referred to clinicians a few days after the onset of colic. The concentrations of MDA and NO should be interpreted with caution.

Biomarkers of Intestinal Injury in Colic

Biomarkers are typically proteins, enzymes, or other molecular changes that are elevated or decreased in body fluids during the course of inflammation or disease. Biomarkers pose an extremely attractive tool for establishing diagnoses and prognoses of equine gastrointestinal colic, one of the most prevalent causes of morbidity and mortality in horses. This topic has received increasing attention because early diagnosis of some forms of severe colic, such as intestinal ischemia, would create opportunities for rapid interventions that would likely improve case outcomes. This review explores biomarkers currently used in equine medicine for colic, including acute phase proteins, proinflammatory cytokines, markers of endotoxemia, and tissue injury metabolites. To date, no single biomarker has been identified that is perfectly sensitive and specific for intestinal ischemia; however, L-lactate has been proven to be a very functional and highly utilized diagnostic tool. However, further exploration of other biomarkers discussed in this review may provide the key to accelerated identification, intervention, and better outcomes for horses suffering from severe colic.

Evaluation of serum concentration of acute-phase proteins (haptoglobin and serum amyloid A) in the affected Arabian foals with rhodococcosis

BACKGROUND

Early detection of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals is essential for horse health and for veterinarians.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to demonstrate the usefulness of assessing the serum concentration of acute-phase proteins (APPs) in the early diagnosis of pneumonia.

METHODS

The study evaluated APPs in 19 Arabian foals with R. equi pneumonia and compared them with 18 normal Arabian foals in equestrian clubs in Tabriz, Iran. Affected foals were identified through history, clinical findings and bacterial culture of tracheal washing. Biochemical methods and polymerase chain reaction tests were performed by examining the 16S rRNA and vapA genes to confirm the diagnosis of bacterial isolates. Blood samples were taken from all sick and healthy horses, and their serum was isolated. APPs in the serum were measured in all the samples.

RESULTS

Rhodococcosis increased the serum concentration of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA) (p < 0.001). The relationship between SAA and Hp was meaningful in the infected group (r = 0.933) but not in the healthy group. In cases where there are clinical findings of R. equi pneumonia, the concentration of SAA and Hp can help the effectiveness of treatment.

- CONCLUSIONS

Serum concentration analysis of APPs can be helpful in early diagnosis and successfully treating foals with R. equi pneumonia.

Usefulness of Selected Acute-Phase Proteins in the Postsurgical Monitoring of Arthroscopy and Splint Bone Removal in Horses

Simple Summary

The study shows the changes in concentration of acute phase proteins (fibrinogen, haptoglobin, protease inhibitors) in the serum of patients from the equine clinic. Blood was collected from horses that underwent arthroscopy (41 horses) and splint bone removal (13 horses). The concentration of the above-mentioned proteins was recorded from the time before the surgery until the 28th day after the surgery and compared to a control group of healthy horses (60 horses). Acute phase proteins change their concentration before clinical symptoms appear; therefore, they could play a key role in early recognition and preventing complications.

Abstract

Background: Arthroscopy and splint bone removal are the common orthopedic procedures in horses. Estimation of the dynamics of acute phase proteins in postoperative monitoring seems to be interesting diagnostic approach. The aim of the study was to investigate changes in the concentrations of plasma inflammatory markers—fibrinogen, haptoglobin, and protease inhibitors—following orthopedic surgery in horses. The study involved 114 horses, divided into two study groups undergoing: arthroscopy (41 horses) and splint bone removal (13 horses). The control group consisted of 60 healthy horses. The blood was collected before the surgery and 24, 48, 72 h, 5, 7, 10, 14 and 28 days after the surgery. Plasma fibrinogen, serum haptoglobin and proteinase inhibitors were measured. Results: In non-complicated cases of arthroscopy and splint bone removal, fibrinogen and haptoglobin increased stepwise from 24 h, achieved the maximum level at 72 h and returned to preoperative levels after 10–14 days. In one complicated case after arthroscopy surgery the marked increase in fibrinogen and haptoglobin concentrations was observed 24 h earlier than standard parameters of inflammation Conclusion: The study shows the evolution of APPs after arthroscopy and splint bone removal in 28 days postsurgery period and in the case of one complicated case of arthroscopy.

Serum amyloid A, Serum Amyloid A1 and Haptoglobin in pregnant mares and their fetuses after experimental induction of placentitis

Serum amyloid A (SAA) and Haptoglobin (Hp) are acute phase proteins, produced during inflammation, such as placentitis. In horses, SAA and SAA1 are protein coding genes. Objectives were to analyze SAA and Hp concentrations and relative abundance of SAA, SAA1 and Hp mRNA transcript in maternal and fetal tissues after experimental induction of placentitis or mares of a control group. Serum Amyloid A family proteins were in marked abundance in the stroma of the endometrium and chorioallantois associated with inflammatory cells. Maternal plasma SAA concentrations were greater (P = 0.01) in mares with experimentally induced placentitis compared to those of the control group. Maternal Hp from the groups were not different, but fetal Hp concentrations of mares with experimentally induced placentitis were greater (P = 0.02). Maternal plasma SAA and Hp concentrations were greater than fetal plasma concentrations in mares with experimentally induced placentitis (P < 0.05). Relative abundance of SAA mRNA transcript was greater in the maternal, fetal liver and chorioallantois of mares with experimentally induced placentitis (P < 0.05) compared to those in the control group. Interestingly, relative abundance of SAA1 mRNA transcript was greater in the chorioallantois of mares with experimentally induced placentitis (P < 0.05). The SAA and Hp concentrations, therefore, were greater in mares with induced placentitis. Furthermore, relative abundance of SAA1 mRNA transcript is specifically greater in the chorioallantois of mares with placentitis, which warrants further studies to elucidate the immunological response of SAA1 in the chorioallantois of mares with placentitis.

Changes in the Secretion of Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines and Acute-Phase Proteins in the Uterus after Artificial Insemination in the Mare

Simple Summary

Semen deposition into the uterus during mating or artificial insemination induces a rapid inflammatory response, and, in susceptible mares, persistent endometritis can develop. Cytokines are mediators involved in the regulation of the inflammatory process, and acute phase proteins are the most sensitive indicators of the inflammatory process. Therefore, the aim of this research was to determine the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines and acute-phase proteins in the uterus before and after artificial insemination in the mare. The obtained results indicate that the status of the mare before artificial insemination has little effect on the response measured shortly after artificial insemination. The presence of intrauterine fluid during estrus is not connected with the inflammation parameters investigated in this study at 7 h post artificial insemination. Detailed examination of the mare’s reproductive tract before and after artificial insemination guarantees high fertility.

Abstract

The objective of the study was to evaluate the concentrations of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-10 (IL-10), serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp) in uterine lavage fluid before and after artificial insemination (AI). Based on ultrasound examination, mares were divided into: Group 1 (n = 9), no fluid was detected in the uterus during estrus and 7 h after AI; Group 2 (n = 8), no fluid was detected in the uterus during estrus but 7 h after AI fluid was detected in the uterus; Group 3 (n = 8), fluid was detected in the uterus during estrus and also 7 h after AI. In all groups of mares, a significant increase in polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) and a significant increase in IL-1RA and SAA were recorded 7 h after AI. The obtained results show that, regardless of the status of the mare before AI, the endometrial response characterized by PMN influx, and SAA, Hp, IL-1RA and IL-10 production, is similar. The presence of intrauterine fluid during estrus is not connected with PMN influx but can impact uterine IL-1RA production at this time.

Reference intervals of acute phase proteins in healthy Andalusian donkeys and response to experimentally induced endotoxemia

BACKGROUND

Assessment of acute phase proteins (APPs) may allow prompt detection of diseases in donkeys, that otherwise may be missed because of the stoic behavior of donkeys. Reference intervals (RIs) of APPs measured using immunoassays and a comparison of the response of these biomarkers to a controlled inflammatory insult are lacking in donkeys.

OBJECTIVES

(a) To describe the RIs for APPs in healthy Andalusian donkeys, (b) to study the effects of sex and age on APPs, and (c) to assess the early response of APPs to experimentally induced endotoxemia.

ANIMALS

Seventy-three healthy Andalusian donkeys (67 for RIs and 6 for endotoxemia).

METHODS

Serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp), C-reactive protein (CRP), ceruloplasmin (Cp), α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), procalcitonin (PCT), ferritin (Ft), and fibrinogen (Fb) RIs were determined. Endotoxemia was induced and samples for APP determination were obtained at regular intervals for 4 hours.

RESULTS

The RIs in Andalusian donkeys were: SAA (0.1-0.6 mg/L), Hp (75-2261 mg/L), CRP (1.3-7.0 mg/L), Cp (0-745 mg/L), AGP (0-884 mg/L), PCT (0-504 pg/mL), Ft (26.9-31.8 μg/L), and Fb (115-466 mg/dL). Concentrations of SAA were higher (P < .05) in jacks. Donkeys <5 years old had higher Cp, AGP, and PCT compared to older donkeys. Concentrations of SAA and Hp were significantly increased in endotoxemic donkeys from 2 hours postinduction.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

We illustrated the importance of using species-specific RIs for APPs in donkeys and the effect of age and sex on APP concentrations. Concentrations of SAA and Hp appear to be the most useful biomarkers in donkeys in the early stages of endotoxemia.

ESTABLISHMENT OF ACUTE-PHASE PROTEIN AND SERUM PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS PRELIMINARY REFERENCE VALUES FOR PRONGHORN (ANTILOCAPRA AMERICANA)

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are native to western North America and are found in 24 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited institutions. Acute-phase proteins (APP) are a broad class of proteins that are stimulated in response to inflammation and have been shown to be a sensitive measure of inflammation in equids and ruminants. In this study, blood samples from clinically normal free-ranging and captive populations of pronghorn were analyzed using assays for protein electrophoresis (EPH) and APP, including serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP), to develop preliminary ranges to gauge potential differences between these populations. Additional samples were taken from clinically abnormal captive pronghorn with facial abscesses. By EPH measurements, albumin: globulin ratio mean and SE were significantly different (P <0.05) with 1.02 (0.08) for captive populations and 1.91 (0.05) for free-ranging populations. Total protein mean and SE were significantly different (P <0.05) for captive and free-ranging populations, respectively 5.6 (0.3) g/dl and 6.9 (0.1) g/dl. Mean and SD of SAA for captive pronghorn were 1.4 (3.2) mg/L, and were significantly different from the free-ranging population, which was below the limits of detection for (P <0.05). There was no difference in HP levels between these groups. In a case study of a pronghorn with facial abscesses, elevated levels of HP, but not SAA, suggested that HP maybe useful in certain disease states. Future studies should explore the use of these biomarkers as tools to monitor general health, prognosis, and subclinical disease.

Effects of advanced age and pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction on components of the acute phase reaction in horses

Age, neurodegenerative disorders, and dysfunction of insulin secretion may be correlated with increased systemic concentrations of acute phase markers. Thus, the study aimed to determine the effect of age, pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), and insulin dysregulation (ID) associated with PPID, on markers of the acute phase reaction. Twenty-nine mix-breed horses of both sexes were classified into groups: (1) healthy adult controls, (2) healthy non-PPID geriatric horses, (3) PPID ID+ horses, and (4) PPID ID- horses. Whole blood proinflammatory cytokine gene expression and serum concentrations of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins were measured. The data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U-test, and correlations between groups of data were assessed using Spearman's correlation coefficient. The tests were statistically significant if P < 0.05. No differences in the whole blood cytokine gene expression, serum cytokine concentrations, or acute phase proteins were noted between the groups. In the PPID ID group, there was a strong correlation between the ACTH concentration after the administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and the expression of IL-8 (r = 0.941; P = 0.0321). In the PPID ID+ group, there was a strong correlation between basal insulin concentrations and serum amyloid A (SAA; r = 0.936; P = 0.0083) as well as between postprandial insulin concentrations and SAA (r = 0.965; P = 0.001). These data suggest that neurodegeneration in horses moderately affects circulating markers of inflammation and that ID in horses with PPID influences acute phase inflammatory markers.

Immune differences in captive and free-ranging zebras (Equus zebra and E. quagga)

Wild mammals in ex situ captivity experience substantially different environmental conditions compared to free-ranging conspecifics, e.g., in terms of diet, climatic conditions, social factors, movement space, and direct anthropogenic disturbance. Moreover, animals in captivity frequently undergo management interventions such as medical treatments which may influence pathogen pressure. Captivity is known to affect immunological responses in some terrestrial and marine mammals; however, it is unclear whether this can be generalized to other taxa. Furthermore, little is known about how energetically costly life history stages such as lactation influence the immune system in wildlife. We measured expression of components of the constitutive and induced innate immunity and of the adaptive immune system in plains and mountain zebras (Equus quagga and E. zebra), including lactating and non-lactating individuals. As a proxy for general immune function, we screened for lytic equine herpesvirus (EHV) infection, a common and often latent pathogen which is reactivated in response to stress and immune challenge. Both energetically cheap markers of the constitutive innate immunity were lower in captive than in wild zebras, whereas energetically costly markers of the induced innate immunity were more highly expressed in captive zebras. Lactation was associated with higher titers of natural antibodies and lysozyme. Lytic EHV infection was not significantly correlated with any of the measured immune markers. Our results suggest that captivity and lactation may influence immune functions in zebra mares.

Assessment of the Acute Phase Response in Healthy and Injured Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)

Acute phase reactants (APRs) have not been investigated in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). This study aimed to identify clinically useful APRs in this species. Reference intervals (RIs) were generated for albumin, fibrinogen, haptoglobin, iron and serum amyloid A (SAA) from 48 free-ranging animals, except for SAA (n = 23). APR concentrations between healthy animals and those with tissue injury (inflammation) (n = 30) were compared. Diagnostic performance was evaluated using receiver-operator characteristic (ROC) curve and logistic regression analyses. RIs were: albumin 18–31 g/L, fibrinogen 1.7–2.9 g/L, haptoglobin 1.0–4.3 g/L, iron 9.7–35.0 μmol/L, SAA <20 mg/L. Iron and albumin were lower and fibrinogen, haptoglobin and SAA higher in injured vs. healthy animals. Iron showed the best diagnostic accuracy followed by fibrinogen, albumin, haptoglobin and SAA. Iron ≤ 15.1 μmol/L and haptoglobin >4.7 g/L were significant predictors of inflammatory status and together correctly predicted the clinical status of 91% of cases. SAA > 20 mg/L had a specificity of 100%. In conclusion, albumin and iron are negative and fibrinogen, haptoglobin and SAA positive APRs in the white rhinoceros. The combination of iron and haptoglobin had an excellent diagnostic accuracy for detecting inflammation.

Serum protein concentrations and protein fractions in clinically healthy Italian Heavy Draft Horses using agarose gel electrophoresis

BACKGROUND

Serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) reference intervals (RIs) have been evaluated in different horses, but no specific values are shown for equine breeds as previously described in other species (dogs, cats), and no studies have been performed on SPE in draft horses.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine RIs for SPE in heavy draft horses (Italian Heavy Draft Horse-IHDH) living in central Italy. A comparison between different physiologic states (pregnancy and no pregnancy) and ages (foals and adults) was executed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Blood samples were collected from 215 apparently healthy horses (mares, stallions, and foals). SPE (total proteins, albumin, α1-, α2-, β1-, β2-, and γ-fractions, A/G) was evaluated in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of Perugia. RIs were determined using well-described, modern analytical and statistical methods. The normality of distributions was assessed using the Anderson-Darling test. Differences between subgroups were evaluated using the Mann-Whitney U test. A P < .05 was considered statistically significant for all analyses.

RESULTS

Our results showed that IHDHs had increases in TPs and the α2-, β1-, β2-, and γ-fractions, and decreases in albumin, α1-globulins, and A/G ratios compared with the data reported in other horses. We also found that foals had significantly higher α1-globulins and significantly lower albumin concentrations, and A/G ratios compared with those of the adult horses.

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study, SPE RIs using agarose gels have been determined for the first time in a large number of draft horses (represented by IHDH). The obtained results provide a basis for the further investigation of equine breeds with natural breeding, and the impact of age and physiologic states on SPE.

Acute phase protein haptoglobin as inflammatory marker in serum and synovial fluid in an equine model of arthritis

Acute phase proteins are useful inflammatory markers in horses. Haptoglobin (Hp) serum level is increased in horses undergoing different inflammatory processes, including arthritis. However, Hp concentration has not been assessed in inflammatory synovial fluid (SF). The aim of the present study was to investigate the Hp response in serum and SF in horses undergoing experimentally induced arthritis. For this purpose, serum and SF samples were collected from 12 animals before amphotericin B-induced arthritis was created (T0, healthy) and 15days after the lesion induction (T1, joint inflammation) and Hp was determined by single radial immunodiffusion. The Hp increase between T0 and T1 was significant in both serum and SF, and serum Hp concentration at T0 was significantly higher than in SF, but significant differences were not found at T1, indicating a higher Hp increase in SF. A significant positive correlation for Hp concentration between serum and SF samples was found. These results highlight the potential usefulness of Hp as inflammatory marker in horses, showing for the first time the increase of Hp in SF from joint inflammation in the horse.

ACUTE PHASE PROTEINS AS A MARKER OF RESPIRATORY INFLAMMATION IN PRZEWALSKI'S HORSE (EQUUS FERUS PRZEWALSKII)

Acute phase proteins are sensitive markers of inflammation, which are highly conserved across taxa. Although the utility of these proteins are becoming well defined in human and domestic animal medical fields, their role in nondomestic species remains unclear. In this communication, a 20-yr-old Przewalski's horse was presented for unresolving aspiration pneumonia, which cultured a unique Actinomyces-like bacteria. Despite waxing and waning clinical signs and minimal changes on baseline hematologic analysis, protein electrophoresis, serum amyloid A, and surfactant protein D serum concentrations showed changes that more accurately reflected the clinical severity of this case.

The usefulness of uterine lavage and acute phase protein levels as a diagnostic tool for subclinical endometritis in Icelandic mares

Background

Endometritis is a common problem in a broodmare practice, often leading to infertility. The diagnosis is based on several methods such as cytology, bacteriology and histopathology; however the outcome of these methods may be inconclusive even when used together. The objectives of this study were: (1) to investigate the usefulness of acute phase proteins as an additional diagnostic tool for diagnosis of subclinical endometritis in mares and (2) to evaluate the association between macroscopic changes in uterine flushes and inflammation of the uterus. Materials were collected from 53 Icelandic mares with subclinical endometritis. Endometrial swabs and uterine lavage for cytological and bacteriological examinations and two endometrial biopsies were taken. Blood samples were collected 12–24 h after ovulation to determine the concentrations of serum amyloid A and haptoglobin in the 53 subfertile mares and, for comparison, from 20 non-pregnant mares that later conceived.

Results

Twenty-five mares were classified as positive for endometritis based on endometrial biopsy, which was used as the ‘gold standard’. We observed a correlation between cloudy efflux in the lavage and (1) polymorphonuclear cell (PMN) infiltration of the endometrium (P = 0.031), (2) positive cytology in samples obtained by cotton swabs (P = 0.019) and uterine lavage (P = 0.011), and (3) positive microbiology from samples obtained by cotton swabs (P = 0.001) and uterine lavage (P = 0.047). The degree of agreement between PMN infiltration and positive cytology from samples taken by cotton swabs and uterine lavage was fair to moderate. We found no association between the concentration of acute phase proteins and infiltration of the endometrium by PMNs, or with positive results of cytological and microbiological examinations.

Conclusions

Measurement of serum amyloid A and haptoglobin was not proven useful for diagnosis of subclinical endometritis in Icelandic mares. Macroscopic changes in the fluid collected by lavage were not consistently indicative of infection, but when present they indicate inflammation in the uterus with a high probability.

Integrating Gene Transcription-Based Biomarkers to Understand Desert Tortoise and Ecosystem Health

Tortoises are susceptible to a wide variety of environmental stressors, and the influence of human disturbances on health and survival of tortoises is difficult to detect. As an addition to current diagnostic methods for desert tortoises, we have developed the first leukocyte gene transcription biomarker panel for the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), enhancing the ability to identify specific environmental conditions potentially linked to declining animal health. Blood leukocyte transcript profiles have the potential to identify physiologically stressed animals in lieu of clinical signs. For desert tortoises, the gene transcript profile included a combination of immune or detoxification response genes with the potential to be modified by biological or physical injury and consequently provide information on the type and magnitude of stressors present in the animal's habitat. Blood from 64 wild adult tortoises at three sites in Clark County, NV, and San Bernardino, CA, and from 19 captive tortoises in Clark County, NV, was collected and evaluated for genes indicative of physiological status. Statistical analysis using a priori groupings indicated significant differences among groups for several genes, while multidimensional scaling and cluster analyses of transcription C T values indicated strong differentiation of a large cluster and multiple outlying individual tortoises or small clusters in multidimensional space. These analyses highlight the effectiveness of the gene panel at detecting environmental perturbations as well as providing guidance in determining the health of the desert tortoise.

Acute phase protein and protein electrophoresis values for captive Grant's zebra (Equus burchelli)

Grant's zebra (Equus burchelli) are commonly kept in zoos and are subject to routine health monitoring and research studies. Recently, assays for acute phase proteins (APP) have been described in many wildlife species, and specific assays for serum amyloid A (SAA) have been well validated and studied in horses (Equus ferus caballus), in which it serves as a major APP. In the present study, serum samples from 26 Grant's zebra were subject to analysis by using assays for SAA, haptoglobin (HP), and protein electrophoresis. Reference intervals were calculated by using the robust method: SAA 1.8-31.4 mg/L and HP 0.37-1.58 mg/ml. Significant differences in SAA and HP were observed in clinically abnormal zebra; in some cases, these differences were marked and were noted in the absence of abnormal values for protein electrophoretic fractions. These data indicate that APP may be a valuable and sensitive tool in monitoring inflammation in this species.