The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security

Forgotten Gems: Exploring the Untapped Benefits of Underutilized Legumes in Agriculture, Nutrition, and Environmental Sustainability

In an era dominated by conventional agricultural practices, underutilized legumes termed "Forgotten Gems" represent a reservoir of untapped benefits with the unique opportunity to diversify agricultural landscapes and enhance global food systems. Underutilized crops are resistant to abiotic environmental conditions such as drought and adapt better to harsh soil and climatic conditions. Underutilized legumes are high in protein and secondary metabolites, highlighting their role in providing critical nutrients and correcting nutritional inadequacies. Their ability to increase dietary variety and food security emerges as a critical component of their importance. Compared to mainstream crops, underutilized legumes have been shown to reduce the environmental impact of climate change. Their capacity for nitrogen fixation and positive impact on soil health make them sustainable contributors to biodiversity conservation and environmental balance. This paper identifies challenges and proposes strategic solutions, showcasing the transformative impact of underutilized legumes on agriculture, nutrition, and sustainability. These "Forgotten Gems" should be recognized, integrated into mainstream agricultural practices, and celebrated for their potential to revolutionize global food production while promoting environmental sustainability.

Pulse Protein Isolates as Competitive Food Ingredients: Origin, Composition, Functionalities, and the State-of-the-Art Manufacturing

The ever-increasing world population and environmental stress are leading to surging demand for nutrient-rich food products with cleaner labeling and improved sustainability. Plant proteins, accordingly, are gaining enormous popularity compared with counterpart animal proteins in the food industry. While conventional plant protein sources, such as wheat and soy, cause concerns about their allergenicity, peas, beans, chickpeas, lentils, and other pulses are becoming important staples owing to their agronomic and nutritional benefits. However, the utilization of pulse proteins is still limited due to unclear pulse protein characteristics and the challenges of characterizing them from extensively diverse varieties within pulse crops. To address these challenges, the origins and compositions of pulse crops were first introduced, while an overarching description of pulse protein physiochemical properties, e.g., interfacial properties, aggregation behavior, solubility, etc., are presented. For further enhanced functionalities, appropriate modifications (including chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatment) are necessary. Among them, non-covalent complexation and enzymatic strategies are especially preferable during the value-added processing of clean-label pulse proteins for specific focus. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the interrelationships between the composition, structure, functional characteristics, and advanced modification strategies of pulse proteins, which is a pillar of high-performance pulse protein in future food manufacturing.

Molecular insight into genetic differentiation, population structure and banding pattern analysis of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) linked with inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR)

BACKGROUND

A set of 44 selected Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) accessions was sampled from 11 distinct populations of four geographical zones to assess the genetic drift, population structure, phylogenetic relationship, and genetic differentiation linked with ISSR primers.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The amplification of genomic DNA with 32 ISSR markers detected an average of 97.64% polymorphism while 35.15% and 51.08% polymorphism per population and geographical zone, respectively. Analysis of molecular variance revealed significant variation within population 75% and between population 25% whereas within region 84% and between region 16%. The Bidillali exposed greater number of locally common band i.e., NLCB (≤ 25%) = 25 and NLCB (≤ 50%) = 115 were shown by Cancaraki while the lowest was recorded as NLCB (≤ 25%) = 6 and NLCB (≤ 50%) = 72 for Roko and Maibergo, accordingly. The highest PhiPT value was noted between Roko and Katawa (0.405*) whereas Nei's genetic distance was maximum between Roko and Karu (0.124). Based on Nei's genetic distance, a radial phylogenetic tree was constructed that assembled the entire accessions into 3 major clusters for further confirmation unrooted NJ vs NNet split tree analysis based on uncorrected P distance exposed the similar result. Principal coordinate analysis showed variation as PC1 (15.04%) > PC2 (5.81%).

CONCLUSIONS

The current study leads to prompting the genetic improvement and future breeding program by maximum utilization and better conservation of existing accessions. The accessions under Cancaraki and Jatau are population documented for future breeding program due to their higher genetic divergence and homozygosity.

Nutritional and pharmacological potentials of orphan legumes: Subfamily faboideae

Legumes are a major food crop in many developing nations. However, orphan or underutilized legumes are domesticated legumes that have valuable properties but are less significant than main legumes due to use and supply restrictions. Compared to other major legumes, they are better suited to harsh soil and climate conditions, and their great tolerance to abiotic environmental circumstances like drought can help to lessen the strains brought on by climate change. Despite this, their economic significance in international markets is relatively minimal. This article is aimed at carrying out a comprehensive review of the nutritional and pharmacological benefits of orphan legumes from eight genera in the sub-family Faboidea, namely Psophocarpus Neck. ex DC., Tylosema (Schweinf.) Torre Hillc., Vigna Savi., Vicia L., Baphia Afzel. ex G. Lodd., Mucuna Adans, Indigofera L. and Macrotyloma (Wight & Arn.) Verdc, and the phytoconstituents that have been isolated and characterized from these plants. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct for articles that have previously reported the relevance of underutilized legumes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list of threatened species was also conducted for the status of the species. References were scrutinized and citation searches were performed on the study. The review showed that many underutilized legumes have a lot of untapped potential in terms of their nutritional and pharmacological activities. The phytoconstituents from plants in the subfamily Faboideae could serve as lead compounds for drug discovery for the treatment of a variety of disorders, indicating the need to explore these plant species.

Yield response of accessions of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc) inoculated with Bradyrhizobium japonicum strains

Field experiments were conducted in two different agroecological locations of Ibadan and Ikenne in Nigeria from August through December during the 2019 and 2020 cropping seasons. The studies were set up to reduce reliance on inorganic nitrogen fertilizer and to embrace the use of nitrogen-fixing bacteria to improve legume production to increase farmers' output and profitability. Ten accessions of the Bambara groundnut (BGN) were used in the trials. Seeds of each BGN accession were coated with each of the following Bradyrhizobium japonicum strains (B. japonicum): FA3, RACA6, USDA110, and IRJ2180A before planting. Furthermore, Nitrogen (N) fertilizer (20 kg/ha, urea) was applied to seedlings without inoculation, and uninoculated seedlings (without inoculation and without fertilization) served as control. The experiment was, therefore, a factorial arrangement (10 BGN accessions, 4 B. japonicum strains, N fertilizer application, and an uninoculated control). The yield and yield components of the inoculated BGN accessions were significantly enhanced at both agroecological locations and seasons. Among the B. japonicum strains used for inoculation, RACA6 strains significantly enhanced the yield and yield component of TVSu-1698 than other inoculated BGN accessions with a mean value of 6,234 ± 87 kg ha−1 recorded in both locations and seasons, compared to the result obtained in the combination of TVSu-1698 with N fertilizer with a mean value of 3,264 ± 943 kg ha−1. By using TVSu-1698 with RACA6 strain, farmers can get 85% more yield than on average with other genotypes/strains combination, while an average yield of 60% could be obtained by farmers using N fertilizer application.

Alternative Protein Sources and Novel Foods: Benefits, Food Applications and Safety Issues

The increasing size of the human population and the shortage of highly valuable proteinaceous ingredients has prompted the international community to scout for new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (e.g., insects) and underutilized legume crops, unexploited terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and fungi. Insect proteins are known for their nutritional value, being rich in proteins with a good balance of essential amino acids and being a valuable source of essential fatty acids and trace elements. Unconventional legume crops were found rich in nutritional, phytochemical, and therapeutic properties, showing excellent abilities to survive extreme environmental conditions. This review evaluates the recent state of underutilized legume crops, aquatic weeds, fungi, and insects intended as alternative protein sources, from ingredient production to their incorporation in food products, including their food formulations and the functional characteristics of alternative plant-based proteins and edible insect proteins as novel foods. Emphasis is also placed on safety issues due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors and allergenic proteins in insects and/or underutilized legumes. The functional and biological activities of protein hydrolysates from different protein sources are reviewed, along with bioactive peptides displaying antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and/or antimicrobial activity. Due to the healthy properties of these foods for the high abundance of bioactive peptides and phytochemicals, more consumers are expected to turn to vegetarianism or veganism in the future, and the increasing demand for such products will be a challenge for the future.

Optimisation of the techno-functional and thermal properties of heat moisture treated Bambara groundnut starch using response surface methodology

This work optimised the techno-functional and thermal properties of heat moisture treated Bambara groundnut starch (BGS). A central composite rotatable design (Design-Expert software v8.0.1.0) comprising two independent factors of temperature and time was used. Extracted BGS were subjected to heat-moisture treatment (HMT) at 80-120 °C for 30-90 min at different moisture levels of 15% (HMT 15-BGS), 25% (HMT 25-BGS) and 35% (HMT 35-BGS). The optimum HMT conditions for BGS were found to be 80 °C for 30 min (HMT 15), 105.74 °C for 30 min (HMT 25), and 113.16 °C for 30 min (HMT 35). The desirability values of the obtained optimum conditions were 0.63 (HMT 15) and 1.00 (HMT 25 and 35). In HMT 35-BGS, water absorption capacity was significantly affected by the quadratic effect of temperature and time. In contrast, solubility was significantly affected by the linear effect of time and the quadratic effect of temperature. Temperature and treatment time had no significant effect (p ≥ 0.05) on the differential scanning calorimetry thermal properties of HMT 15, 25 and 35-BGS. Scanning electron micrographs of optimised BGS showed round and oval-shaped starch granules ranging from 4.2 to 4.7 mm (width) and 10 μm for length. Unmodified and optimised HMT-BGS showed characteristic FTIR bands linked with common starches. All BGS samples displayed multiple vibrations in the region below 1000 cm^-1 due to the skeletal vibrations of the glucose pyranose ring.

Genetic variation and characterization of Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) verdc.] accessions under multi-environments considering yield and yield components performance

Bambara groundnut has significant role to play in terms of food security, even though researchers in agriculture have paid very little attention to the crop in the past. This study aimed to investigate the high-yielding accessions in three environments. A total of 34 phenological, vegetative and yield traits were measured and analyzed statistically with R software. There were significant differences in all the traits except for plant height, initial plant stand, panicle length per stem, and petiole length. Across the three environments, TVSU-455 gave the highest values for the total number of pods (42.67), final plant stands (7.67), fresh seed weights (45.83), number of seeds per plant (46.62), hundred seed weight with a value (124.56), dry seed weight (27.14), fresh pod weight (92.65), harvest index of 0.57, yield per plot (45.83) and unshelled yield per plot (550.26). TVSU-455 was the only accession in cluster I of the dendrogram based on its superiority over other accessions. The clustering analysis produced a dendrogram categorizing the 15 accessions into 4 groups based on the vegetative, phenological, and yield traits. There were significant differences among the correlations of the 34 traits. The first two principle components explained 56.16% of the total variation with each dimension accounting for 39.85% and 16. 31% variation, respectively. TVSU-455 can be recommended for stability analysis.

Karakterisasi Fisiko-Kimia Biji dan Kulit Ari Kacang Bogor Asal Jampang-Sukabumi Jawa Barat

The traditional cultivation and limited use of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) seed and coat have encouraged the development of this commodity. The aim of this research was to characterize the seed and coat of bambara groundnut from Jampang, Kab. Sukabumi, West Java. Analysis on bambara groundnut seed including proximate analysis, in vitro protein digestibility, starch content, and dietary fiber, as well as analysis on its coat including anthocyanin, total phenolic, antioxidant activity, phytic acid and tannin, were examined in this study. The results showed that bambara groundnut seed from Jampang-Sukabumi contained 16.53% proteins, 3.04% ash, 7.83% fats and 55.22% carbohydrates in dry basis (db). The carbohydrates consisted of starch 52.71% and dietary fiber 7.47% (db). The protein had an in vitro protein digestibility of 41.65% db. The purple seed coat contained of 1.51% anthocyanin, 25.85 mg/g total phenolic content (as gallic acid equivalent), antioxidant activity at 82.75% inhibition of free radical DPPH, 6.37 mg/g phytic acid, and 96.79 mg/g tannin (as tannic acid equivalent) in dry basis. The relatively high content of tannin and antioxidant activity but very low phytic acid content, make the bambara seed coat a potential source for tannin, meanwhile the bambara groundnut is potential as a nutrition source.

Variations of Nutrient and Antinutrient Components of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) Seeds

Bambara groundnut (BGN) fits the bill when it comes to an acceptable level of nutrient and mineral composition. BGN is a balanced food that can help eradicate food and nutritional insecurity if it is incorporated into the major food system. However, there is a large degree of variation in nutrient composition and antinutritional factors among BGN accessions. Here, we show the degree of variability of nutrient and antinutrient components such as percentage ash, moisture, protein, fat, tryptophan, tannin, and phytate contents in seeds of 95 accessions of BGN. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by correlation and principal component analysis. Clustering was done to show the relatedness between the accessions in response to the various traits. A high level of heterogeneity was observed among the accessions for the various traits studied. PC1 and PC2 show 41.2% of the total observed variations. Cluster analysis grouped accessions into four main clusters. This study was able to confirm the high level of diversity in the components of nutrients and antinutrients previously reported in BGN. The results of this study are expected to aid in identifying parent lines for improved breeding programs.

The role of soaking, steaming, and dehulling on the nutritional quality of Bambara groundnuts (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc.)

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc.) is a leguminous plant that is widely cultivated in West Africa for its nutritious seeds. However, the hard-to-cook phenomenon of this legume affects its patronage by consumers. The quality and bioavailability of nutrients are affected by processing techniques during cooking. This study evaluated the effects of processing techniques on the nutritional quality of two Bambara groundnut varieties (namely, Simbi-bile and Sinkpili-zee). For this, each variety was subjected to four processing techniques, namely, (i) dehulled and soaked in water, (ii) dehulled and soaked in 1% NaHCO3 + 1% NaCl, (iii) dehulled and steamed, and (iv) Control. After sample processing, the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) standard protocols were used for chemical analysis. The results on proximate composition, anti-nutritional factors, and seed minerals composition showed significant variations among treatments. The main effects of variety and processing technique markedly influenced the parameters measured. Soaked Bambara groundnut with NaHCO3 reduced anti-nutritional factors. Steamed treatments yielded highest amount of protein (25.87%) while dehulled treated Bambara groundnut produced the highest amount of carbohydrate (42.77%). Calcium, potassium, and iron showed significant reduction (p ≤ 0.05) when dehulled. Additional sodium in processing Bambara increased mineral content of the crop. Anti-nutritional factor levels were also reduced significantly in simbi-bile when soaked. Proximate components (crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, carbohydrate, and water) had significant changes in their compositions across all the processing techniques. From the correlation analysis, oxalate and phytate have some levels of effect in all varieties on every nutritional or mineral component. Total ash correlated negatively with crude fat and positively with phytate and oxalate. Dehulled and control did not reduce the anti-nutritional factors compared to NaHCO3 + NaCl. From the results, soaking of Bambara groundnuts in 1% NaHCO3 + 1% NaCl prior to cooking was effective in improving nutritional quality while overcoming the hard-to-cook phenomenon. The findings highlight the need to adopt correct processing techniques that conserve the nutritional benefits of these edible seeds. Soaking Bambara groundnut in NaHCO3 + NaCl as a processing technique increases mineral content while reducing anti-nutritional factors, and hence should be adapted.

Orphan legumes: harnessing their potential for food, nutritional and health security through genetic approaches

Legumes, being angiosperm's third-largest family as well as the second major crop family, contributes beyond 33% of human dietary proteins. The advent of the global food crisis owing to major climatic concerns leads to nutritional deprivation, hunger and hidden hunger especially in developing and underdeveloped nations. Hence, in the wake of promoting sustainable agriculture and nutritional security, apart from the popular legumes, the inclusion of lesser-known and understudied local crop legumes called orphan legumes in the farming systems of various tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world is indeed a need of the hour. Despite possessing tremendous potentialities, wide adaptability under diverse environmental conditions, and rich in nutritional and nutraceutical values, these species are still in a neglected and devalued state. Therefore, a major re-focusing of legume genetics, genomics, and biology is much crucial in pursuance of understanding the yield constraints, and endorsing underutilized legume breeding programs. Varying degrees of importance to these crops do exist among researchers of developing countries in establishing the role of orphan legumes as future crops. Under such circumstances, this article assembles a comprehensive note on the necessity of promoting these crops for further investigations and sustainable legume production, the exploitation of various orphan legume species and their potencies. In addition, an attempt has been made to highlight various novel genetic, molecular, and omics approaches for the improvement of such legumes for enhancing yield, minimizing the level of several anti-nutritional factors, and imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. A significant genetic enhancement through extensive research in 'omics' areas is the absolute necessity to transform them into befitting candidates for large-scale popularization around the globe.

Establishing a Common Nutritional Vocabulary - From Food Production to Diet

Informed policy and decision-making for food systems, nutritional security, and global health would benefit from standardization and comparison of food composition data, spanning production to consumption. To address this challenge, we present a formal controlled vocabulary of terms, definitions, and relationships within the Compositional Dietary Nutrition Ontology (CDNO, www.cdno.info) that enables description of nutritional attributes for material entities contributing to the human diet. We demonstrate how ongoing community development of CDNO classes can harmonize trans-disciplinary approaches for describing nutritional components from food production to diet.

Unveiling Genetic Diversity, Characterization, and Selection of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc) Genotypes Reflecting Yield and Yield Components in Tropical Malaysia

Addressing genetic diversity and application of appropriate breeding strategies are imperative for Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L.) improvement as a newly introduced legume in Malaysia. It has become a “miracle lucrative” legume for Asia and Africa because of its drought resilience, excellent nutritional profiles, and versatile uses. This crop's progress has been limited owing to a lack of extensive research, marginalization, inadequate knowledge, and a lack of accessible funds, among other concerns. The expansion of this crop is reliant on the assessment and selection of unique and reliable breeding lines in various circumstances. Consequently, the goal of this work is to determine genetic diversity and the relationship between yield-contributing components in 44 Bambara groundnut accessions sourced from the Genebank of Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security (ITAFoS) at Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). Three replications were used in the experiment, which was done using a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The data were subjected to ANOVA, PCA, correlation, and heat map cluster analysis; also, genetic parameters and broad-sense heritability estimation were carried out on recorded phenotypic descriptors. All of the investigated variables had a significant variance (p ≤ 0.05 or 0.01) according to the ANOVA results. Yield per hectare showed a positively strong to perfect significant correlation (0.75 ≤ r ≤ 1.00; p ≤ 0.01) with the yield components viz. fresh pod weight, hundred seed weight, dry pod weight, and dry seed weight. Interestingly, these traits had heritability ≥ 60% and genetic gain ≥ 20%, which can be beneficial for direct selection to this crop improvement. The UPGMA clustering revealed five distinct clusters in which genotypes under cluster I, cluster II, and cluster IV produce a greater yield of 5.96%, 7.12%, and 15.05%, respectively, than the grand mean yield of 1927.01 kg/ha. The PCA biplot estimated that PC1 (32.9%) and PC2 (12.9%) would cover 45.8% of the total variance. We discovered 30 promising lines that provide yields per hectare more than 1.8 ton/ha and might be used as parental lines in future breeding operations aimed at improving the grain yield in tropical areas or comparable agroecological zones.

Natural Genotypic Variation Underpins Root System Response to Drought Stress in Bambara Groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.]

Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.] is grown in rainfed production systems and suffers from periodic drought stress (DS), leading to yield reductions. Natural genotypic variation for root traits is essential for adaptation to water deficit conditions. However, root traits have not been fully utilised as selection criteria to improve DS in bambara groundnut. The present study explored the natural genotypic variation found in single genotypes of bambara groundnut derived from landraces to identify adaptive differences in tap root length (TRL) and root length density (RLD) in response to DS. A diverse core collection of eight bambara groundnut genotypes from various locations (namely, Gresik, LunT, IITA-686, DodR, S19-3, Tiga nicuru, and Ankpa-4, DipC1), were grown for two seasons (2018 and 2019) in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) columns with well-watered (WW) and 30-day DS treatments. Plant samples were collected at 55 days after emergence (DAE) (30 days of DS) and at 105 DAE (30 days of DS plus 50 days of recovery). Under DS, differential TRL among genotypes at 55 DAE was observed, with DodR recording the longest among genotypes with an increase (1% in 2018) in TRL under DS compared to WW, whereas LunT and IITA-686 showed significant (p < 0.001) decrease in TRL (27 and 25%, respectively, in 2018). Average RLD was observed to have the highest reduction under DS in the 90-110 cm layer (42 and 58%, respectively, in 2018 and 2019). Rainy habitat LunT had limited roots in 2018 and recorded the least (0.06 ± 0.013 cm^-3) RLD in 2019. However, dry-habitat DodR showed an increase in the RLD (60-90 cm) under DS compared to WW, while dry-habitat S19-3 densely occupied all depths with RLD of 0.16 ± 0.05 and 0.18 ± 0.01 cm cm^-3 in the deepest layer in both seasons, respectively. Reduced RLD under DS showed recovery when the plants were re-watered. These plants were additionally observed to have RLD that surpasses the density in WW at all soil depths at 105 DAE. Also, recovery was shown in Tiga nicuru and DodR (0-30 cm) and IITA-686 (90-110 cm) in 2019. Average RLD under DS treatment was associated with substantial grain yield advantage (R ² = 0.27 and R ² = 0.49, respectively) in 2018 and 2019. An increase in TRL allowed DodR to quickly explore water at a deeper soil depth in response to gradually declining soil water availability. High RLD in genotypes such as DodR, DipC1 and S19-3 also offered adaptive advantage over other genotypes under DS. Variation in intrinsic RLD in deeper soil depths in the studied genotypes determines root foraging capacity when facing DS. This suggests that different agroecological environments to which bambara groundnut is subjected in its natural habitat have promoted a phenotypic differentiation in root systems to adapt to ecotypic conditions, which may help offset the impact of DS. The natural genotypic variation exhibited, especially by DodR, could be exploited to identify potential quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control deep rooting and root length density.

Lantana camara: Poisonous Species and a Potential Browse Species for Goats in Southern Africa—A Review

Among the possible impacts of plant invaders on South African biodiversity, water supplies, and rangeland production, Lantana camara is ranked the highest in terms of its environmental impact. Globally, L. camara is regarded as one of the most ecologically and economically destructive invasive alien plants. The spread of L. camara affects the environment and threatens livestock productivity due to its toxicity to animals (especial cattle and sheep) in most semi-arid areas of South Africa. Lantana camara is known to have high concentrations of nutrients that are beneficial to livestock, but most previous research has concentrated on its toxicity. To enrich our knowledge on its nutritive value, further research has to evaluate its dietary impact on the growth and health of different ruminant livestock species, particularly goats. This review evaluates L. camara as a potential browse species for goats in southern Africa, and its adverse effects on goats and other ruminant livestock are also presented. The review describes L. camara and its distribution globally, its poisonous effect to livestock, and potential use as an alternative forage to browsing animals such as goats, which have proved resistant to its harmful traits. The high crude protein content, low fibre and adequate macro-minerals for small ruminants makes L. camara a good ruminant protein supplement in semi-arid areas. In addition to other biological control strategies, the prospects of using goats as a biological management tool is discussed. The research will contribute to the understanding of the control measures of L. camara while improving the productivity of small stock, especially goats. This means that a balanced understanding of its nutritional value as a source of protein and its negative impact on the environment should be considered in developing mitigation strategies to arrest its spread. We, therefore, recommend the use of goats in the control of L. camara; however, further studies are needed to limit its toxic effects, and thus improve its value.

The Exploitation of Orphan Legumes for Food, Income, and Nutrition Security in Sub-Saharan Africa

Poverty, food, and nutrition insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) have become major concerns in recent times. The effects of climate change, drought, and unpredictable rainfall patterns threaten food production and sustainable agriculture. More so, insurgency, youth restiveness, and politico-economic instability amidst a burgeoning population requiring a sufficient and healthy diet remain front-burner issues in the region. Overdependence on only a few major staple crops is increasingly promoting the near extinction of many crops, especially orphan legumes, which possess immense potentials as protein and nutritional security crops. The major staple crops are declining in yield partly to their inability to adapt to the continuously changing climatic conditions. Remarkably, the orphan legumes are climate-smart crops with enormous agronomic features which foster sustainable livelihood. Research efforts on these crops have not attained a reasonable comparative status with most commercial crops. Though many research organizations and scientists have made efforts to promote the improvement and utilization of these orphan legumes, there is still more to be done. These legumes' vast genetic resources and economic utility are grossly under-exploited, but their values and promising impacts are immeasurable. Given the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) of zero hunger, improved nutrition, health, and sustainable agriculture, the need to introduce these crops into food systems in SSA and other poverty-prone regions of the world is now more compelling than ever. This review unveils inherent values in orphan legumes needing focus for exploitation viz-a-viz cultivation, commercialization, and social acceptance. More so, this article discusses some of the nutraceutical potentials of the orphan legumes, their global adaptability, and modern plant breeding strategies that could be deployed to develop superior phenotypes to enrich the landraces. Advanced omics technologies, speed breeding, as well as the application of genome editing techniques, could significantly enhance the genetic improvement of these useful but underutilized legumes. Efforts made in this regard and the challenges of these approaches were also discussed.

Improving Bambara Groundnut Production: Insight Into the Role of Omics and Beneficial Bacteria

With the rise in the world population, environmental hazards caused by chemical fertilizers, and a decrease in food supply due to global climate change, food security has become very pertinent. In addition, considerable parts of agriculture lands have been lost to urbanization. It has therefore been projected that at the present rate of population increase coupled with the other mentioned factors, available food will not be enough to feed the world. Hence, drastic approach is needed to improve agriculture output as well as human sustainability. Application of environmentally sustainable approach, such as the use of beneficial microbes, and improved breeding of underutilized legumes are one of the proposed sustainable ways of achieving food security. Microbiome-assisted breeding in underutilized legumes is an untapped area with great capabilities to improve food security. Furthermore, revolution in genomics adaptation to crop improvement has changed the approach from conventional breeding to more advanced genomic-assisted breeding on the host plant and its microbiome. The use of rhizobacteria is very important to improving crop yield, especially rhizobacteria from legumes like Bambara groundnut (BGN). BGN is an important legume in sub-Saharan Africa with high ability to tolerate drought and thrive well in marginalized soils. BGN and its interaction with various rhizobacteria in the soil could play a vital role in crop production and protection. This review focus on the importance of genomics application to BGN and its microbiome with the view of setting a potential blueprint for improved BGN breeding through integration of beneficial bacteria.

Development of Selection Indices for Improvement of Seed Yield and Lipid Composition in Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)

The underutilised grain legume bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) has the potential to contribute significantly to nutritional security. However, the lack of commercial cultivars has hindered its wider adoption and utilisation as a food source. The development of competitive cultivars is impeded by (1) lack of systematic data describing variation in nutritional composition within the gene pool, and (2) a poor understanding of how concentrations of different nutritional components interact. In this study, we analysed seed lipid and protein concentration and lipid composition within a collection of 100 lines representing the global gene pool. Seed protein and lipid varied over twofold with a normal distribution, but no significant statistical correlation was detected between the two components. Seed lipid concentration (4.2–8.8 g/100 g) is primarily determined by the proportion of oleic acid (r² = 0.45). Yield and composition data for a subset of 40 lines were then used to test selection parameters for high yielding, high lipid breeding lines. From five selection indices tested using 15 scenarios, an index based on the seed number, seed weight, and oleic acid yielded a >50% expected increase in each of the mean values of seed number, pod dry weight, seed dry weight, and seed size, as well as an expected 7% increase in seed lipid concentration.

GGE Biplot Analysis of Genotype × Environment Interaction and Yield Stability in Bambara Groundnut

In plant breeding and agricultural research, biplot analysis has become an important statistical technique. The goal of this study was to find the winning genotype(s) for the test settings in a part of the Southwest region of Nigeria, as well as to investigate the nature and extent of genotype × environment interaction (GEI) effects on Bambara groundnut (BGN) production. The experiment was carried out in four environments (two separate sites, Ibadan and Ikenne, for two consecutive years, 2018 and 2019) with ninety-five BGN accessions. According to the combined analysis of variance over environments, genotypes and GEI both had a substantial (p < 0.001) impact on BGN yield. The results revealed that BGN accessions performed differently in different test conditions, indicating that the interaction was crossover in nature. The results revealed that BGN accessions performed differently in different test conditions, indicating that the interaction was crossover in nature. To examine and show the pattern of the interaction components, biplots with the genotype main effect and genotype × environment interaction (GEI) were used. The first two PCs explained 80% of the total variation of the GGE model (i.e., G + GE) (PC1 = 48.59%, PC2 = 31.41%). The accessions that performed best in each environment based on the “which-won-where” polygon were TVSu-2031, TVSu-1724, TVSu-1742, TVSu-2022, TVSu-1943, TVSu-1892, TVSu-1557, TVSu-2060, and TVSu-2017. Among these accessions, TVSu-2017, TVSu-1557, TVSu-2060, TVSu-1892, and TVSu-1943 were among the highest-yielding accessions on the field. The adaptable accessions were TVSu-1763, TVSu-1899, TVSu-2019, TVSu-1898, TVSu-1957, TVSu-2021, and TVSu-1850, and the stable accessions were TVSu-1589, TVSu-1905, and TVSu-2048. In terms of discriminating and representativeness for the environments, Ibadan 2019 is deemed to be a superior environment. The selected accessions are recommended as parental lines in breeding programs for grain yield improvement in Ibadan or Ikenne or similar agro-ecological zones.

How postharvest variables in the pulse value chain affect nutrient digestibility and bioaccessibility

Pulses are increasingly being put forward as part of healthy diets because they are rich in protein, (slowly digestible) starch, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. In pulses, nutrients are bioencapsulated by a cell wall, which mostly survives cooking followed by mechanical disintegration (e.g., mastication). In this review, we describe how different steps in the postharvest pulse value chain affect starch and protein digestion and the mineral bioaccessibility of pulses by influencing both their nutritional composition and structural integrity. Processing conditions that influence structural characteristics, and thus potentially the starch and protein digestive properties of (fresh and hard-to-cook [HTC]) pulses, have been reported in literature and are summarized in this review. The effect of thermal treatment on the pulse microstructure seems highly dependent on pulse type-specific cell wall properties and postharvest storage, which requires further investigation. In contrast to starch and protein digestion, the bioaccessibility of minerals is not dependent on the integrity of the pulse (cellular) tissue, but is affected by the presence of mineral antinutrients (chelators). Although pulses have a high overall mineral content, the presence of mineral antinutrients makes them rather poorly accessible for absorption. The negative effect of HTC on mineral bioaccessibility cannot be counteracted by thermal processing. This review also summarizes lessons learned on the use of pulses for the preparation of foods, from the traditional use of raw-milled pulse flours, to purified pulse ingredients (e.g., protein), to more innovative pulse ingredients in which cellular arrangement and bioencapsulation of macronutrients are (partially) preserved.

Phytochemical composition and antioxidant properties of methanolic extracts of whole and dehulled Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) seeds

The distribution of phytochemicals and their contribution to antioxidant potentials in whole and dehulled Bambara groundnut (BGN) seeds was evaluated. Whole BGN seeds were sorted using the testa and hilium colour and further grouped into whole and dehulled BGN seeds. Extractions of both whole and dehulled BGN seeds was done using methanol and the extracts assayed for total phenolics (TPC), flavanol, flavonol, anthocyanin content, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Methanolic extract of whole BGN seed exhibited higher flavanol and flavonol content as well as significantly higher in-vitro antioxidant activities than dehulled BGN seeds. The TPC of whole BGN seed extract ranged from 3.6 to 11.0 GAE/g, while that of dehulled BGN ranged from 2.7 to 3.2 GAE/g. Identification of phenolics in whole and dehulled BGN seed extract using UPLC-qTOF-MS, revealed the presence of monoterpenoids (iridoids), phenolic acids, flavonoids and lignans. Bivariate correlations showed anthocyanin demonstrated weak positive correlation between flavanol, flavonol and ORAC for whole BGN seed extract; and negative correlation between flavanol, TPC, FRAP and ORAC for dehulled BGN. Aside the effect of dehulling, whole BGN seeds exhibited the presence of phytochemicals with beneficial properties for food and industrial application.

Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc): A Crop for the New Millennium, Its Genetic Diversity, and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges

The world’s food and agricultural schemes have gradually fallen into an alarming state due to challenges such as high population birth rates, diverse agro-climatic zones, a lack of measures to counter global warming, severe practices of sole-culture cultivation, and asset reduction. A very high dependency on limited staple food crops is associated with repetitious diets, deprivation of food, and shortages of trace minerals, which often causes dietary sicknesses. To ensure nutritious diets worldwide, a real-world and justifiable scheme is provided to garner extra attention towards variation in both agriculture/farming approaches and food habits. The EAT-Lancet statement emphasized an increase in agri-based diets as a way of attaining global generational health. Enlarging neglected crops with plenty of genomic stocks and potentially profitable attributes is a solution that could address food and nutritional security concerns. Bambara groundnut is one such imperative and neglected legume crop that contributes positively to improving global food and nutrient safety. As a “complete food”, this crop has recently been treated as a new millennium crop, and furthermore, it is more adjusted to poor soil and climatic conditions than other dominant crops. Bambara groundnut is a repository of vital nutrients that provides carbohydrates, crucial amino acids, proteins, and energy as well as minerals and vitamins to developed and low-income countries where animal proteins are not readily available. This review explores the potential of Bambara groundnut in ensuring food and nutrient security; its variables, production, processing, nutrient values, role in reducing the nutritional gap, and diverse uses; and attempts in improving its traits. To strengthen food production, an agricultural revolution is required for underutilized crop species to feed the ever-expanding population in the world. Henceforth, advanced plant-breeding procedures, such as next-generation breeding techniques, various molecular tools, TILLING, Eco-TILLING, proteomics, genomics, and transcriptomics (which has been used for major crops), also need to be practiced to intensify production. To boost productivity and to feed the most starved and malnourished populations of the world, it is assumed that the application of modern techniques will play a vital role in the advancement of the underutilized Bambara groundnut.

Role of novel protein sources in sustainably meeting future global requirements

Global population growth, increased life expectancy and climate change are all impacting world's food systems. In industrialised countries, many individuals are consuming significantly more protein than needed to maintain health, with the majority being obtained from animal products, including meat, dairy, fish and other aquatic animals. Current animal production systems are responsible for a large proportion of land and fresh-water use, and directly contributing to climate change through the production of greenhouse gases. Overall, approximately 60% of the global protein produced is used for animal and fish feed. Concerns about their impact on both human, and planetary health, have led to calls to dramatically curb our consumption of animal products. Underutilised plants, insects and single-cell organisms are all actively being considered as alternative protein sources. Each present challenges that need to be met before they can become economically viable and safe alternatives for food or feed. Many plant species contain anti-nutritional factors that impair the digestion and absorption of protein and micronutrients. Insects represent a potentially rich source of high-quality protein although, questions remain relating to digestibility, allergenicity and biosecurity. Algae, fungi and bacteria are also a rich source of protein and there is growing interest in the development of 'cultured meat' using stem cell technology. For the foreseeable future, it appears likely that the 'protein-economy' will remain mixed. The present paper reviews progress and future opportunities in the development of novel protein sources as food and animal feed.

Genetic Diversity and Environmental Influence on Growth and Yield Parameters of Bambara Groundnut

Bambara groundnut (BGN) is a drought-tolerant crop majorly cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa. Due to a lack of extensive research, marginalization, lack of awareness, and lack of available fund among others, this crop's improvement has been limited. The development of this crop depends on evaluation and selection of unique and stable breeding lines in different environments. This study aims to estimate genetic diversity using morphological traits at different locations in 95 accessions of BGN collected from the Genebank of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. The experiment was carried out in three replicates at IITA experimental sites in two agroecological zones in Ibadan (7°40'19.62″ N, 3°91'73.13″ E) and Ikenne (6°51'00.873″ N, 3°41'48.528″ E) using a randomized complete block design. Ten vegetative growth traits and eight yield traits were scored. The data was subjected to ANOVA, PCA, correlation, and cluster analysis. Estimations of genetic parameters and broad sense heritability were carried out on the traits. ANOVA revealed significant variation in each trait except for days to emergence. Significant variation was also observed for accession and location interactions (genotype x environment interactions) for plant height, leaf length, leaf width, chlorophyll content, number of petioles, germination count, number of pods, number of seeds, seed length, seed width, and yield. PC1 and PC2 show 42.3% of the total variations observed by the PC, with seed thickness contributing more to PC1 and the number of seeds contributing more to PC2. Cluster analysis categorized the accessions into four distinct groups. The number of pods had the highest genotypic coefficient of variation of 32.55% and the phenotypic coefficient of variation of 97.61%, while seed length (0.63), seed width (0.54), and seed thickness (0.58) have high heritability values. The genetic advance was highest in yield (76.15%) and lowest in days to 50% germination (0.21%). This study can be used to predict appropriate agroecological zones for the planting of BGN while the knowledge of the diversity of the accessions based on the traits could serve a guide in selecting the best trait for the improvement of the crop.

Breeding Potentials of Bambara Groundnut for Food and Nutrition Security in the Face of Climate Change

Constant production of quality food should be a norm in any community, but climate change, increasing population, and unavailability of land for farming affect food production. As a result, food scarcity is affecting some communities, especially in the developing world. Finding a stable solution to this problem is a major cause of concern for researchers. Synergistic application of molecular marker techniques with next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies can unlock the potentials hidden in most crop genomes for improving yield and food availability. Most crops such as Bambara groundnut (BGN), Winged bean, and African yam bean are underutilized. These underutilized crops can compete with the major crops such as cowpea, soybean, maize, and rice, in areas of nutrition, ability to withstand drought stress, economic importance, and food production. One of these underutilized crops, BGN [Vigna subterranea (L.), Verdc.], is an indigenous African legume and can survive in tropical climates and marginal soils. In this review, we focus on the roles of BGN and the opportunities it possesses in tackling food insecurity and its benefits to local farmers. We will discuss BGN's potential impact on global food production and how the advances in NGS technologies can enhance its production.

Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition

Rapid population growth, climate change, intensive monoculture farming, and resource depletion are among the challenges that threaten the increasingly vulnerable global agri-food system. Heavy reliance on a few major crops is also linked to a monotonous diet, poor dietary habits, and micronutrient deficiencies, which are often associated with diet-related diseases. Diversification-of both agricultural production systems and diet-is a practical and sustainable approach to address these challenges and to improve global food and nutritional security. This strategy is aligned with the recommendations from the EAT-Lancet report, which highlighted the urgent need for increased consumption of plant-based foods to sustain population and planetary health. Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.), an underutilized African legume, has the potential to contribute to improved food and nutrition security, while providing solutions for environmental sustainability and equity in food availability and affordability. This paper discusses the potential role of Bambara groundnut in diversifying agri-food systems and contributing to enhanced dietary and planetary sustainability, with emphasis on areas that span the value chain: from genetics, agroecology, nutrition, processing, and utilization, through to its socioeconomic potential. Bambara groundnut is a sustainable, low-cost source of complex carbohydrates, plant-based protein, unsaturated fatty acids, and essential minerals (magnesium, iron, zinc, and potassium), especially for those living in arid and semi-arid regions. As a legume, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen to improve soil fertility. It is resilient to adverse environmental conditions and can yield on poor soil. Despite its impressive nutritional and agroecological profile, the potential of Bambara groundnut in improving the global food system is undermined by several factors, including resource limitation, knowledge gap, social stigma, and lack of policy incentives. Multiple research efforts to address these hurdles have led to a more promising outlook for Bambara groundnut; however, there is an urgent need to continue research to realize its full potential.

Developing the role of legumes in West Africa under climate change

West Africa is faced with significant challenges from climate change, including parts of the region becoming hotter with more variable rainfall. The Sahelian region in particular is already subject to severe droughts. To address this better adapted crop varieties (such as for cowpea) are clearly a central element, a complementary one is a greater use of resilient alternative crops especially underutilized legumes particularly Bambara groundnut, African yam bean, winged bean and Kersting's groundnut. Genetic diversity of these crops conserved in genebanks and farmer's field provides an opportunity to exploit climate resilient traits using cutting-edge genomic tools and to use genomics-assisted breeding to accelerate genetic gains in combination of rapid cycle breeding strategy to develop climate-resilient cultivars for sub-Saharan Africa.

Fonio and Bambara Groundnut Value Chains in Mali: Issues, Needs, and Opportunities for Their Sustainable Promotion

As the effects of climate change are severely straining West African agricultural systems, the adoption of more incisive interventions in support of sustainable development agendas for the region is highly critical and cannot be further delayed by governments. Neglected and underutilized species (NUS) are one important ally in pursuing resilience in both production and food systems because of their promising traits in terms of nutrition, adaptation to local agroecosystems, and economic potential for local populations. Focusing on fonio, a gluten-free traditional cereal, and Bambara groundnut, a protein-rich leguminous crop, we investigate issues in their production, commercialization, and consumption in southern Mali. The aim was to assess needs and opportunities for improving their value chains and increasing their use and societal benefits. Using a Rapid Market Appraisal method, we surveyed traders, producers, processors, and consumers of target crops in 2017 and 2018. Our findings indicate that while both crops are consumed and praised by local populations, critical bottlenecks inhibit their wider socioeconomic potential. Lack of access to inputs and equipment and presence of sand in the commercialized product are important issues for fonio, whereas the Bambara groundnut value chain suffers from poor processing facilities and lack of market promotion. Policy recommendations to tackle the identified bottlenecks are proposed.

Fermentability and nutritional characteristics of sorghum Mahewu supplemented with Bambara groundnut

Processing functionality in terms of fermentability and nutritional characteristics of Mahewu (a sorghum-based nonalcoholic beverage product) supplemented with different proportions of Bambara groundnut (BGN) (80:20 and 70:30, respectively) was investigated to develop a sorghum-based beverage product with improved nutritional quality. Sorghum-BGN Mahewu blends showed a rapid reduction in pH and significantly (P < 0.05) lower final pH (4.3) after 24 hr compared to the control (pH 5.1) (100% Sorghum Mahewu). With total titratable acidity (TTA), sorghum-BGN Mahewu blends had significantly higher final TTA (0.7%) than control (0.4%). Sorghum-BGN Mahewu blends had higher protein and crude fiber contents (up to 7.7% and 7.9%, respectively) than control (6.1% and 5.7%, respectively). In general, sorghum Mahewu supplemented with BGN did not show substantial increase in mineral and individual amino acid contents after fermentation compared to the control, possibly due to increase in tannin content with BGN supplementation. Fermentation significantly (P < 0.05) reduced phytate content by more than 90% in sorghum Mahewu supplemented with BGN when compared to the control (28% reduction). Importantly, BGN supplementation improved the level of some essential amino acids such as threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, histidine, and lysine. Therefore, supplementation with BGN can potentially improve the nutritional quality of sorghum Mahewu but modification in processing procedure is required to effectively improve the nutritional quality of sorghum-BGN blends. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research work has direct application in addressing problem of malnutrition, as well as improving utilization of indigenous food crops in commercial food processing. This is one of the practical approach to address food insecurity that is prevalent in most African countries.

Bridging the food security gap: an information-led approach to connect dietary nutrition, food composition and crop production

BACKGROUND

Food security is recognized as a major global challenge, yet human food-chain systems are inherently not geared towards nutrition, with decisions on crop and cultivar choice not informed by dietary composition. Currently, food compositional tables and databases (FCT/FCDB) are the primary information sources for decisions relating to dietary intake. However, these only present single mean values representing major components. Establishment of a systematic controlled vocabulary to fill this gap requires representation of a more complex set of semantic relationships between terms used to describe nutritional composition and dietary function.

RESULTS

We carried out a survey of 11 FCT/FCDB and 177 peer-reviewed papers describing variation in nutritional composition and dietary function for food crops to identify a comprehensive set of terms to construct a controlled vocabulary. We used this information to generate a Crop Dietary Nutrition Data Framework (CDN-DF), which incorporates controlled vocabularies systematically organized into major classes representing nutritional components and dietary functions. We demonstrate the value of the CDN-DF for comparison of equivalent components between crop species or cultivars, for identifying data gaps and potential for formal meta-analysis. The CDN-DF also enabled us to explore relationships between nutritional components and the functional attributes of food.

CONCLUSION

We have generated a structured crop dietary nutrition data framework, which is generally applicable to the collation and comparison of data relevant to crop researchers, breeders, and other stakeholders, and will facilitate dialogue with nutritionists. It is currently guiding the establishment of a more robust formal ontology. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ageing, dehulling and cooking of Bambara groundnuts: consequences for mineral retention and in vitro bioaccessibility

Postharvest storage of legumes is a strategy to ensure food security. However, the hard-to-cook phenomenon, partly explained by pectin-cation-phytate theory, may develop during storage. Based on this theory, minerals could be redistributed within the matrix, affecting the concentration of free/bound minerals and hence their bioaccessibility. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of storage-induced ageing and subsequent dehulling, soaking and cooking treatments on the concentration and in vitro bioaccessibility of Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn in Bambara groundnuts. ICP-OES was performed to determine Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn concentrations after applying different treatments and after simulated digestion in the context of bioaccessibility determination. This study illustrates that while the seed coat is rich in Ca (51%), it contains only less than 15% of Mg, Fe or Zn. Hence, dehulling negatively influenced Ca, but not Mg, Fe or Zn concentration. During soaking, up to 10% or 56% of the initial Mg concentration leaches into whole or dehulled seeds, respectively. Prolonging the cooking time (300 min) of whole aged Bambara groundnuts (32 weeks), necessary for obtaining palatable textures, decreased the overall Mg, Fe and Zn concentrations by 72%, 57% and 48%, respectively. Storage-induced ageing significantly decreased Ca solubility and bioaccessibility. Bioaccessibility of trace minerals in Bambara groundnuts is low, especially for Fe, and cannot be improved by dehulling or cooking treatments. Ageing did not influence Fe and Zn bioaccessibility. Populations relying on both fresh and aged Bambara groundnuts may still be at risk for mineral deficiencies.

Understanding the genetic relationships between Indonesian bambara groundnut landraces and investigating their origins

A total of 170 bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) accessions were evaluated using both simple sequence repeat (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers generated using genotyping-by-sequencing (GbS), of which 56 accessions were collected from West and East Java. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), population structure, and cluster analysis suggest that the East Java accessions could be a result of the introduction of selected West Java accessions. In addition, the current Indonesian accessions were likely introduced from Southern Africa, which would have produced a very marked founding effect such that these accessions present only a fraction of the genetic variability that exists within this species.

Bambara groundnut: an exemplar underutilised legume for resilience under climate change

Bambara groundnut has the potential to be used to contribute more the climate change ready agriculture. The requirement for nitrogen fixing, stress tolerant legumes is clear, particularly in low input agriculture. However, ensuring that existing negative traits are tackled and demand is stimulated through the development of markets and products still represents a challenge to making greater use of this legume. World agriculture is currently based on very limited numbers of crops, representing a significant risk to food supplies, particularly in the face of climate change which is expected to increase the frequency of extreme events. Minor and underutilised crops can help to develop a more resilient and nutritionally dense future agriculture. Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.[, as a drought resistant, nitrogen-fixing, legume has a role to play. However, as with most underutilised crops, there are significant gaps in knowledge and also negative traits such as 'hard-to-cook' and 'photoperiod sensitivity to pod filling' associated with the crop which future breeding programmes and processing methods need to tackle, to allow it to make a significant contribution to the well-being of future generations. The current review assesses these factors and also considers what are the next steps towards realising the potential of this crop.

Crops For the Future (CFF): an overview of research efforts in the adoption of underutilised species

Crops For the Future (CFF), as an entity, has established a broad range of research activities to promote the improvement and adoption of currently underutilised crops. This paper summarises selected research activities at Crops For the Future (CFF) in pursuit of its mission 'to develop solutions for diversifying future agriculture using underutilised crops'. CFF is a research company focussed on the improvement of underutilised crops, so that they might be grown and consumed more widely with benefits to human food and nutritional security; its founding guarantors were the Government of Malaysia and the University of Nottingham. From its base in Malaysia, it engages in research around the world with a focus on species and system diversification. CFF has adopted a food system approach that adds value by delivering prototype food, feed and knowledge products. Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) was adopted as an exemplar crop around which to develop CFF's food system approach with emphasis on the short-day photoperiod requirement for pod-filling and the hard-to-cook trait. Selective breeding has allowed the development of lines that are less susceptible to photoperiod but also provided a range of tools and approaches that are now being exploited in other crops such as winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), moringa (Moringa oleifera) and proso (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail (Setaria italica) millets. CFF has developed and tested new food products and demonstrated that several crops can be used as feed for black soldier fly which can, in turn, be used to feed fish thereby reducing the need for fishmeal. Information about underutilised crops is widely dispersed; so, a major effort has been made to develop a knowledge base that can be interrogated and used to answer practical questions about potential exploitation of plant and nutritional characteristics. Future research will build on the success with Bambara groundnut and include topics such as urban agriculture, rural development and diversification, and the development of novel foods.