Use of combined conventional and real-time PCR to determine the epidemiology of feline haemoplasma infections in northern Italy

Prevalence of Hemoplasma spp. positivity in potential feline blood donors and study of the association with selected clinical variables

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas, hemoplasmas, are epi-erythrocytic parasitic bacteria that can be transmitted through blood transfusion.

OBJECTIVES

To study the prevalence of hemoplasma infection of potential feline blood donors and investigate the association between Hemoplasma spp. quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) positivity in blood units and selected variables.

ANIMALS

Seven thousand five hundred seventy-three blood units from 4121 privately-owned potential donor cats.

METHODS

Retrospective observational cross-sectional study. The Banco Sangue Animal (BSA)-Animal Blood Bank medical database was reviewed for all feline donations performed in 2022 in Portugal, Spain, and Belgium. Baseline characteristics and results of blood-borne pathogens screening tests were extracted from the medical records.

RESULTS

Two hundred twelve of 4034 Portuguese donor cats and 2 of 70 Spanish donor cats tested positive for Hemoplasma spp. qPCR in 2022 leading to an overall estimated prevalence of 5.2% (95% CI: 4.5%-5.9%) in potential blood donors. Using multivariable generalized estimation equation models, Hemoplasma spp. qPCR was more often positive among blood units issued from male cats (OR = 1.9, 95% CI: 1.4-2.6, P < .0001), units positive for FeLV (OR = 2.8, 95% CI: 1.4-5.6, P = .0023), and units collected in winter months (OR = 2.5, 95% CI: 1.7-3.6, P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

This study underscores the importance of Hemoplasma spp. and other relevant blood-borne pathogens screening at every donation. Implementing stringent screening protocols is crucial to mitigate the risk of hemoplasma transmission via blood transfusions, thereby safeguarding the health and welfare of cats receiving transfusions.

A case of mistaken identity: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and reinvestigation of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. infection in Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea)

BACKGROUND

Feline-associated hemotropic Mycoplasma (hemoplasmas) are believed to be transmitted by two primary mechanisms: (1) direct transmission via fighting and (2) vector-borne transmission by the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). While the efficiency of transmission by C. felis appears low, most manuscripts focus on the prevalence of hemoplasmas in wild-caught fleas and report either a very low (< 3%) or a high (> 26%) prevalence. Therefore, we aimed to assess the influence of sample processing and PCR methods on C. felis hemoplasma infection prevalence.

METHODS

A systemic review of PubMed articles identified 13 manuscripts (1,531 fleas/flea pools) that met the inclusion criteria (performed PCR for >1 hemoplasma on C. felis collected from cats). Risk of bias was assessed utilizing the ROBINS-E tool. Meta-analysis performed in R of these manuscripts found that not washing samples and a common set of 16S rRNA primers first published in Jensen et al. 2001 were associated with increased hemoplasma prevalence. To evaluate the influence of washing on newly collected fleas, we assessed the hemoplasma status of 20 pools of 5 C. felis each, half of which were washed and half not washed.

RESULTS

Flea washing did not influence the detection of hemoplasma but instead amplified Spiroplasma. To assess non-specific amplification with the Jensen et al. 2001 primers, 67 C. felis samples (34% previously reported hemoplasma infected) were subject to PCR and sequencing. By this method, hemoplasma was detected in only 3% of samples. In the remaining "hemoplasma infected" fleas, PCR amplified Spiroplasma or other bacteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, we concluded that hemoplasma infection in C. felis is rare, and future flea prevalence studies should sequence all positive amplicons to validate PCR specificity. Further investigation of alternative methods of feline-associated hemoplasma transmission and the ability of C. felis to maintain hemoplasma infection is necessary.

Vector-Borne Pathogens in Stray Cats in Eastern Germany (Thuringia)

Bacterial, protozoal, and viral vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) can cause infections in cats. There is little information on feline VBP prevalence in Germany. Stray cats are frequently exposed to vectors but receive no veterinary care. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of selected VBPs in stray cats. EDTA blood and serum samples were taken from apparently healthy stray cats during a spay/neuter campaign in the federal state of Thuringia. Overall, 11/50 (22%) and 32/50 (64%) cats tested positive for at least one VBP by direct and indirect detection methods, respectively. PCR testing of EDTA blood detected hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in 12% of cats, Hepatozoon spp. in 10%, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in 4%. PCR testing for Rickettsia spp. and piroplasms was negative. IFAT on serum samples showed 46% of cats had detectable antibodies for Bartonella spp., 30% for Rickettsia spp., and 16% for A. phagocytophilum. The cats were additionally tested for feline coronavirus, FIV, and FeLV to identify potential risk factors for pathogen contact and/or infections. No correlation between FIV and FeLV status and VBP positivity was detected. Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., and Bartonella spp. have zoonotic potential, and surveillance is recommended in the context of the One Health approach.

Evaluating the association between blood genotype or phenotype and haemoplasma infection in UK and Italian cats

BACKGROUND

In humans, blood groups are associated with varying prevalence of infections. The aim of this study was to determine if associations exist between the feline AB blood group system and haemoplasma infection.

METHODS

Data from two studies were combined. In the first study, DNA samples from 131 haemoplasma-infected and 132 haemoplasma-uninfected UK cats underwent pyrosequencing to determine their blood genotype as AA, Ab or bb. In the second study, blood samples from 160 Italian cats of known blood phenotype A, B or AB underwent PCR testing for feline haemoplasma species DNA.

RESULTS

Haemoplasma infection was demonstrated in cats of all phenotypes and genotypes. A significantly higher number of Ab genotype cats tested positive for overall haemoplasma infection status (p = 0.04) and for Mycoplasma haemofelis infection (p = 0.03).

LIMITATIONS

Haemoplasma-infected Italian cats were few, possibly increasing the chance of type II error, and the presence of purebred cats in the sample population may have had a confounding effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Feline haemoplasmas do not appear to preferentially use either blood type A or B antigens as attachment sites for erythrocyte colonisation. Further investigations in a larger number of haemoplasma-infected cats of known blood phenotype are warranted to explain the association between genotype Ab and haemoplasma infection.

Looking for Dog Blood Donors in an Endemic Area for Vector-Borne Infections of Central Italy

Simple Summary

Dogs have proved to be competent reservoir hosts for several vector-borne pathogens, whose prevalence varies according to the area and over time due to the increased movement of people and their pets, climate changes, and vector adaptation strategies. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of some vector-borne pathogens in dog blood donors, living in central Italy. Blood samples of 126 donors included were tested for a broad screening panel for infectious pathogens. The differences in pathogens prevalence according to age, sex, and breeds were tested. Overall, 50 animals tested positive for at least one pathogen. A tendency of hemoplasmas to be more prevalent in older dogs (41.2%) was noted. We highlight the difficulties of selecting healthy blood donor dogs in an endemic area for vector-borne infections. Close collaboration between specialists is important in the interpretation of positive test results. Finally, we underline the important role of blood donors as an epidemiological tool for active surveillance against canine infectious diseases.

Abstract

Dogs are proved to be competent reservoir hosts for several vector-borne pathogens. Their prevalence varies according to the geographical area. Many vector-borne pathogens may be transmitted by blood transfusion. The purpose of this study was to determine the serological and molecular prevalence of some vector-borne pathogens in dog blood donors, living in central Italy. Blood samples of 126 donors (19 breeds) included were tested for a broad serological and DNA-base tests panel. The differences in pathogen prevalence according to age, sex, and breeds were tested (chi-square test, Fisher’s exact test). Overall, 50 animals (39.7%) tested positive at PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and/or serology (IFAT, indirect fluorescent antibody test) for at least one pathogen. Three dogs were positive at both serology and PCR. A tendency of hemoplasmas to be more prevalent in older dogs (41.2%) compared to the younger ones (25.7%) was noted. We highlight the difficulties of selecting healthy blood donor dogs in an endemic area for vector-borne infections. It is important to choose the serological and biomolecular investigations panel that is most suited to the donor’s environment. Close collaboration between clinician and parasitologists is important in the interpretation of IFAT and PCR results. Finally, we underline the important role of blood donors as an epidemiological tool for active surveillance against canine vector-borne diseases.

Cytauxzoon sp. Infection and Coinfections in Three Domestic Cats in Central Italy

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging disease caused by a tick-transmitted haemoprotozoan affecting domestic and wild felids. The clinical and biomolecular findings of the infection due to Cytauxzoon sp. and concomitant coinfections are described in three cats in central Italy. Three domestic cats were referred for different clinical conditions (impact trauma, lameness, and weight loss and lethargy). They presented different hematobiochemical profiles. Only two cats were anemic, but in all three cats, endo erythrocyte inclusions suggestive of piroplasmids were found at blood smear evaluation. EDTA blood samples were submitted to rapid ELISA test for feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV), and to biomolecular investigations for Piroplasmida (Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Cytauxzoon spp.) and Mycoplasma spp. All three cats were positive for Cytauxzoon sp. (European Cytauxzoon species) and two cases were also coinfected by Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis and FIV. This report suggests that cytauxzoonosis should be included among differential diagnoses in subjects with possibility of contact with ticks and with presence of coinfections by tick-borne parasites, including in non-endemic areas.

Implications of Mycoplasma haemofelis bacterial load on the haematological parameters of naturally infected cats

Mycoplasma haemofelis is the most pathogenic haemoplasma species that affect cats. M. haemofelis may cause an acute infection that leads to haemolytic anaemia. The objective of this study was to detect and to quantify the load of M. haemofelis in cats by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and to describe the possible haematological changes. M. haemofelis DNA was detected in 28.6% of the randomly selected cats (42 of 147) attended at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Mato Grosso, Brazil. The agreement between conventional PCR and qPCR was substantive (k 0.6). Females were twice as likely to acquire infection as males (odds ratio, 2.31). There was no statistically significant association (p > 0.05) and little/no correlation between the haematological parameters and the average of bacterial load. The results indicate that M. haemofelis infection is not related to clinical signs and bacterial blood load in cats. The agreement between conventional and quantitative PCR made it possible to detect infection by M. haemofelis in a larger number of cats.

Prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasmas and coinfection with feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus in cats in the Moscow region, Russia

Feline haemoplasma infection studies are lacking in Russia. This retrospective study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of feline haemoplasmas in domestic cats in the Moscow region, Russia. A risk of haemoplasma coinfection with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) was also determined. qPCR analysis for feline haemoplasmas was performed on EDTA blood samples from 753 cats from the Moscow region, Russia. Subsets of these samples were tested also for FIV and FeLV by qPCR. Of the 753 blood samples, 104 (13.8 %) were positive for one of the Mycoplasma species. The prevalence of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm), Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt) was 7.6 %, 5.5 %, and 0.7 %, respectively. One sample (0.1 %) was simultaneously infected with two haemoplasmas, namely, Mhf and CMt. Haemoplasma positive cats were more likely to be infected with FIV than haemoplasma negative (17.6 % vs 6.7 %), but these differences were not statistically significant. The prevalence of FeLV was comparable among haemoplasma positive and negative cats (23.5 % vs 25.7 %) All three known species of feline haemoplasma were detected, confirming their presence in Russia. The overall and species-specific rates of haemoplasma infections in Russian cats are generally similar to the rates in the countries of central Europe. This report documents for the first time the prevalence of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas in domestic cats not only in Russia but also in eastern Europe.

Distribution and risk factors of canine haemotropic mycoplasmas in hunting dogs from southern Italy

Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc) and "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum" (CMhp) are the main haemoplasma species known to infect dogs. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of haemoplasma species infections in hunting dogs from southern Italy and assess related risk factors. 1,433 hunting dogs living in Campania region were tested by qPCR assay. The prevalence was 19.9 %; 13.1 % for Mhc and 11.4 % for CMhp; 4.6 % showed a coinfection with both haemoplasma species. Statistical analysis revealed living in Salerno province (Mhc: OR 3.72; CMhp: OR 2.74), hound (Mhc: OR 5.26; CMhp: OR 8.46) and mixed breed (Mhc: OR 3.38; CMhp: OR 2.80), rural environment (Mhc: OR 12.58; CMhp: OR 10.38), wild mammal hunting (Mhc: OR 8.73; CMhp: OR 8.32), cohabitation with other animals (Mhc: OR 2.82; CMhp: OR 2.78) and large pack size (Mhc: OR 2.96; CMhp: OR 1.61) as risk factors for haemoplasmas. Male gender (OR 1.44) and tick infestation history (OR 1.40) represented risk factors only for Mhc, while adult age (2-7 years - OR 2.01; > 7 years - OR 1.84) and large body size (OR 1.48) were associated only to CMhp. Mhc infection was significantly associated to Babesia vogeli (p < 0.05) and Hepatozoon canis (p < 0.001), while CMhp with H. canis (p < 0.001). This study adds information on haemoplasma species distribution in hunting dogs in southern Italy. Outdoor lifestyle and contact with wild fauna, through greater exposure to tick infestation, or possibly wounds acquired during hunting or fighting, could be factors contributing to haemoplasma infections.

Molecular detection of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in domestic cats (Felis catus) in Romania

BACKGROUND

The hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) of the genus Mycoplasma are recognized as important bacteria that parasitize red blood cells, causing hemolytic anemia in many mammalian species, including cats. No information is available concerning the presence of feline hemoplasma infections in cats in Romania. Thus, the objective of the present study was to provide data on the occurrence and molecular characterization of hemotropic mycoplasmas in client-owned cats in Romania.

METHODS

Blood samples from 51 unhealthy cats, originating from Timişoara Municipality, Romania, were screened for the presence of hemoplasmas using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the 16S rRNA gene and sequencing assays. PCR-positive samples were subsequently analyzed by phylogenetic and population genetic analysis.

RESULTS

Molecular analysis revealed 11 (21.6%) positive samples, consisting of 8 (72.7%) Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and 3 (27.3%) Mycoplasma haemofelis confirmed positives. Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis was not detected, and no co-infections were registered. No significant associations (p > 0.05) were found between the hemoplasma infection status and age, gender, breed, presence of ectoparasites, feline leukemia virus/feline immunodeficiency virus positivity of cats, or the sampling season. However, outdoor access was positively associated (p = 0.049) with infection and could be considered a risk factor (OR = 4.1) in acquiring feline hemotropic mycoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that our sequences clustered with those selected from the GenBank database in two distinct clades. The registered population genetic indices were strongly supportive of the great variance in sequences between the recorded Mycoplasma species.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings support the occurrence of feline hemoplasma infections in previously uninvestigated territories of Europe, providing useful information for small animal practitioners. To our knowledge, the present survey is the first reported molecular evidence of feline hemoplasma infections in Romania.

A molecular survey of vector-borne pathogens and haemoplasmas in owned cats across Italy

BACKGROUND

Feline vector-borne pathogens (FeVBPs) have been increasingly investigated for their impact on cat health and their zoonotic potential. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence of FeVBPs and haemoplasmas in cats across Italy and to identify potential risk factors linked to their occurrence.

METHODS

Blood samples from 958 owned cats living in the North (n = 556), Centre (n = 173) and South (n = 229) of Italy were tested for Babesia spp., Hepatozoon spp., Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp. and filarioids by conventional PCR (cPCR) and for haemoplasmas and Bartonella spp. by SYBR green real-time PCR. Cats included in the study represent a sub-sample from a larger number of animals enrolled in a previous study, which were selected based on the geographical origin. Data on cats' positivity for Leishmania infantum, feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and for feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), available from the previous study, were included and examined. Potential risk factors for pathogen infection were assessed in relationship to categorical variables including sex, geographical origin, breed, neutering status and age of cats.

RESULTS

Out of the 958 cats, 194 (20.2%) were positive for at least one of the tested pathogens, 89 (16%) from the North, 32 (18.5%) from the Centre and 73 (31.9%) from the South of Italy. A high prevalence of FeVBPs was detected in male cats (n = 125, 27.8%), living in the southern part of the country (n = 73, 31.9%), younger than 18 months of age (n = 24, 22.4%) and not neutered (n = 39; 27.5%). In particular, 24 cats (2.5%) tested PCR-positive for Bartonella spp., of which 1.6% for B. henselae and 0.9% for B. clarridgeiae. A total of 111 cats scored PCR-positive for haemoplasmas (11.6%), specifically "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (n = 95, 9.9%), M. haemofelis (n = 14, 1.5%) and "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis" (n = 2, 0.2%). Moreover, 39, 31 and 8 cats were positive for FeLV (4.1%), L. infantum (3.2%) and FIV (0.8%), respectively. Co-infections were registered for 19 (9.8%) cats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm the occurrence of haemoplasmas and FeVBPs throughout Italy. Preventive measures to protect both animal and human health should be carried out also for owned cats, even if no health status of animals has been assessed in this study.

Comparison of three blood transfusion guidelines applied to 31 feline donors to minimise the risk of transfusion-transmissible infections

Objectives The increased demand for animal blood transfusions creates the need for an adequate number of donors. At the same time, a high level of blood safety must be guaranteed and different guidelines (GLs) deal with this topic. The aim of this study was to evaluate the appropriateness of different GLs in preventing transfusion-transmissible infections (TTI) in Italian feline blood donors. Methods Blood samples were collected from 31 cats enrolled as blood donors by the owners' voluntary choice over a period of approximately 1 year. Possible risk factors for TTI were recorded. Based on Italian, European and American GLs, specific TTI, including haemoplasmas, feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia species, Bartonella species, Babesia species, Theileria species, Cytauxzoon species, Leishmania donovani sensu lato and feline coronavirus (FCoV), were screened. Rapid antigen and serological tests and biomolecular investigations (PCR) were used. Several PCR protocols for haemoplasma and FeLV DNA were compared. Results The presence of at least one recognised risk factor for TTI was reported in all cats. Results for FIV and FeLV infections were negative using rapid tests, whereas five (16.1%) cats were positive for FCoV antibodies. Four (12.9%) cats were PCR positive for haemoplasma DNA and one (3.2%) for FeLV provirus, the latter being positive only using the most sensitive PCR protocol applied. Other TTI were not detected using PCR. Conclusions and relevance Blood safety increases by combining the recommendations of different GLs. To reduce the risk of TTI, sensitive tests are needed and the choice of the best protocol is a critical step in improving blood safety. The cost and time of the screening procedures may be reduced if appropriate tests are selected. To this end, the GLs should include appropriate recruitment protocols and questionnaire-based risk profiles to identify suitable donors.

Prevalence and risk factor analysis for feline haemoplasmas in cats from Northern Serbia, with molecular subtyping of feline immunodeficiency virus

Objectives

The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of feline haemoplasma infections in Northern Serbia, identify potential risk factors and perform molecular subtyping of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV).

Methods

PCR analysis for feline haemoplasmas was performed on surplus EDTA blood samples from 373 cats from the Belgrade region, Serbia. An ELISA was used to determine the prevalence of feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and FIV; PCR was performed on a subpopulation of these cats. FIV subtyping was performed using PCR.

Results

Within this population, 64/373 cats (17.2%) were infected with one or more haemoplasma species. Mycoplasma haemofelis was detected in 20/373 cats (5.4%), ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ in 47/373 cats (12.6%) and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ in 23/373 cats (6.2%). Coinfections were observed in 21/373 cats (5.6%). Based on ELISA serological retroviral testing, 4/310 cats (1.3%) were infected with FeLV, whereas 78/331 (23.6%) were infected with FIV. Multivariable analysis identified significant associations between haemoplasma infection and anaemia (anaemic/non-anaemic, odds ratio [OR] 2.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04–7.1; P = 0.041]), male gender (male/female, OR 4.5, 95% CI 2.22–9.03; P <0.0005), outdoor access (yes/no, OR 5.2, 95% CI 2.28–11.92; P <0.0005), non-pedigree breed (non-pedigree/pedigree, OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.24–24.84; P = 0.025) and FIV seropositive status (positive/negative, OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.21–4.83; P = 0.012). PCR analysis of the FIV ELISA-positive samples revealed clade D as being the most prevalent.

Conclusions and relevance

All three known species of feline haemoplasma were detected, confirming their presence in Serbia; ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ was the most prevalent. We found a high prevalence of FIV-infected cats and FIV clade D was most prevalent.

Epidemiological study of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in cats from central Spain

Background

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) have been found infecting cats worldwide. However, studies about feline hemoplasma infections in Spain are scarce. Therefore, the purpose of the research was to evaluate the prevalence of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas and to characterize risk factors and clinical findings associated with these infections in a cat population from the Madrid area, Spain.

Methods

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed to detect Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), “Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum” (CMhm) and “Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis” (CMt) in blood samples from 456 client-owned and 138 stray cats from Madrid. In order to assess associations between these hemoplasma infections and epidemiological parameters, data regarding signalment, environment, prophylaxis measures, retrovirus status, clinical signs and laboratory findings were compiled, whenever possible.

Results

DNA of feline hemoplasmas was detected from the blood of 63 out of 594 cats (10.6%), with a prevalence of 3.7% (22/594) for Mhf, 8.1% (48/594) for CMhm and 0.5% (3/594) for CMt. Stray cats had statistically higher prevalences of feline hemoplasmas (15.9%) and, specifically, of Mhf (8.7%) than client-owned cats (9 and 2.2%, respectively). A total of seven cats (1.17%) were co-infected with “Candidatus M. haemominutum” and M. haemofelis, two (0.33%) with “Candidatus M. haemominutum” and “Candidatus M. turicensis” and another one (0.17%) with M. haemofelis and Candidatus “M. turicensis”. Male gender, collection of blood during warm months and FeLV/FIV positivity status were associated with hemotropic mycoplasma infection in cats from Madrid. Additionally, within the group of client-owned cats, hemoplasma infection was associated with adult age, outdoor access, and the existence of low haematocrit, erythrocyte count and haemoglobin concentration values.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first epidemiological survey of feline hemoplasmas performed in central Spain (Madrid). Our study confirms that “Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum”, Mycoplasma haemofelis and “Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis” are infecting client-owned and stray cats in this region of Spain, “Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum” being the most prevalent species. More studies are necessary to help understand the role of the natural infection by these species of hemoplasma in cats.

Haemoplasmosis in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management

OVERVIEW

Haemoplasmas are haemotropic bacteria that can induce anaemia in a wide range of mammalian species. Infection in cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis is the most pathogenic of the three main feline haemoplasma species known to infect cats. ' Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' and ' Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' are less pathogenic but can result in disease in immunocompromised cats. Male, non-pedigree cats with outdoor access are more likely to be haemoplasma infected, and ' Candidatus M haemominutum' is more common in older cats. All three haemoplasma species can be carried asymptomatically. Transmission: The natural mode of transmission of haemoplasma infection is not known, but aggressive interactions and vectors are possibilities. Transmission by blood transfusion can occur and all blood donors should be screened for haemoplasma infection.

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

PCR assays are the preferred diagnostic method for haemoplasma infections. Treatment with doxycycline for 2-4 weeks is usually effective for M haemofelis-associated clinical disease (but this may not clear infection). Little information is currently available on the antibiotic responsiveness of ' Candidatus M haemominutum' and ' Candidatus M turicensis'.

Vector-borne diseases in cats in Germany

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are caused by a wide range of pathogens, which are transmitted by a variety of vectors, such as ticks and fleas. As a result of climate changes, more vector-borne diseases are becoming endemic in Germany, not only in dogs, but also in cats. For some of the pathogens prevalence data still need to be investigated in Germany. However, natural infections with Bartonella, Anaplasma, haemotropic Mycoplasma and Borrelia species have already been described in German cats. Clinical relevance of these pathogens is not fully understood, and it is still unknown, why most infected cats stay asymptomatic and which predisposing factors contribute to the development of clinical signs in cats. Moreover, there is a risk of zoonotic transmission for some of the pathogens, e.  g., for some Bartonella spp. infections that are associated with cat scratch disease in humans. Due to the increasing number of VBDs in cats in Germany, preventive measures, such as the use of acaricides and insecticides, should be performed on a regular base in order to reduce the risk of these infections.

Detection and molecular characterization of feline hemoplasmas in wild felid species in Iran in the Middle East

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First description of feline hemoplasma and immunodeficiency virus in endangered Persian Leopard species in Iran, Middle East.

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No zoo-kept wild felids were infected.

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Close sequence identity with hemoplasma isolates from domestic and wild felids in Iran and other geographical origins.

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Both ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ infected leopards were old and male and were not born nor residing in zoos.

Three feline hemoplasma species exist in felids: Mycoplasma haemofelis, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’.

The aims of the study were to determine the presence of, and molecularly characterize, any hemoplasmas in wild felids, including the endangered Persian leopard in Iran, the Middle East.

Blood samples were collected from 19 wild felids, including three Persian leopards. Using species-specific hemoplasma PCRs and ELISA serological testing for feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), two Persian leopards were found to be infected with ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ and were seropositive for FIV. Partial 16S rRNA gene sequences were generated for these ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ species and subsequent phylogenetic analysis revealed 97.70% to 99.45% sequence identity with those found in domestic cats from Iran and other countries.

This study confirms the presence of ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ and concurrent FIV antibody in wild felids in Iran. This represents the first report of hemoplasma in wild felids in the Middle East as well as the first report of infection in Persian leopards.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of canine and feline hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in northern Italy

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas), the agents of infectious anemia, have been reported in dogs and cats. Little data are available on hemoplasma infections in Italy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the species of hemoplasmas and their prevalence in dogs and cats of northern Italy.

METHODS

Blood samples were obtained from 117 candidate blood donor dogs, 278 free-roaming dogs and 227 free-roaming cats in 2014 and 2015. Samples were first screened for hemoplasmas with a SYBR green real time PCR. The positive samples were confirmed by a second SYBR green real time PCR and sequencing. Co-infections were detected using species-specific SYBR green real time PCR.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence in dogs was 4.5% (18/395). Among the donors only one dog was positive for Mycoplasma haemocanis (0.8%). The overall prevalence of infection in free-roaming dogs was 6.1% (17/278), which was significantly higher than in candidate donors (P < 0.05). Both M. haemocanis (13/278; 4.7%) and "Candidatus M. haematoparvum" (4/278; 1.4%) were identified. In dogs, no significant association was found between hemoplasma infection and gender, age or origin. The overall prevalence in cats was 13.2% (30/227). All three feline hemoplasma species were detected, i.e. "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (28; 12.3%), "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis" (11; 4.8%) and Mycoplasma haemofelis (9; 4.0%). Half of the infected cats were co-infected (15; 6.6%) with different species of hemoplasmas. Risk factor analysis confirmed that older age, male gender and FIV positivity are predisposing factors for hemoplasma infection in cats.

CONCLUSION

This study found that candidate blood donor dogs in northern Italy show a negligible risk for hemoplasma infection, confirming the appropriateness of the candidate selection criteria and the low prevalence in the study area. Accordingly, testing for hemoplasma should be considered optional for canine blood donor screening. Hemoplasma infection was instead common in free-roaming cats, and is expected to be non-negligible in owned cats with outdoor access. Feline candidates for blood donation will therefore need to be carefully selected.

Risk factors of different hemoplasma species infections in cats

Background

Hemoplasma species (spp.) commonly cause infections in cats worldwide. However, data on risk factors for infections are limited. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma spp. infections in cats in Southern Germany and to assess risk factors associated with infection.

Results

DNA was extracted from blood samples of 479 cats presented to different veterinary hospitals for various reasons. DNA of feline hemoplasmas was amplified by use of a previously reported PCR assay. Direct sequencing was used to confirm all purified amplicons and compared to hemoplasma sequences reported in GenBank. Results were evaluated in relation to the age, sex, housing conditions, feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) status of the cats.

The overall hemoplasma prevalence rate was 9.4% (45/479; 95% CI: 7.08–12.36). ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma (M.) haemominutum’ (Mhm) DNA was amplified from 42 samples, M. haemofelis from 2, and M. haemocanis from 1 sample. There was a significantly higher risk of hemoplasma infection in cats from multi-cat households, in outdoor cats, as well as in cats with FIVinfection and in cats with abortive FeLV infection, but not in cats with progressive or regressive FeLV infection.

Conclusions

Mhm infection is common in cats in Southern Germany. Higher prevalence in multi-cat households and associations with FeLV infection likely reflect the potential for direct transmission amongst cats. Outdoor access, male gender, and FIV infection are additional risk factors that might relate to aggressive interactions and exposure to vectors.

Hematological changes associated with hemoplasma infection in cats in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

This study aimed to detect Mycoplasma spp. in naturally infected cats from Rio de Janeiro and to evaluate hematological abnormalities and factors associated with this infection. Out of the 197 cats sampled, 11.2% presented structures compatible with hemoplasma organisms on blood smears. In contrast, 22.8% were positive for Mycoplasma spp. by means of 16S rRNA gene real-time polymerase chain reaction, which reflects the weak concordance between techniques. The infection rates, by means of 16S rRNA gene conventional polymerase chain reaction, was 4.6%, 4.6% and 11.7% for Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt) and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm), respectively. Mhf and CMhm infections are more frequent in the summer (p>0.05). Presence of anemia (p < 0.02), lymphocytosis (p < 0.03), thrombocytopenia (p < 0.04) and activated monocytes (p < 0.04) was associated with Mhf infection. No hematological abnormality was associated with CMt or CMhm infection. Male cats were more prone to be infected by Mhf or CMhm (p < 0.01). Adult cats had more chance to be infected by CMhm. Three hemoplasma species occur in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro and Mhf seems to be the most pathogenic of them. Anemia is the most important hematological abnormality.

Prevalence of feline haemoplasma in cats in Denmark

BACKGROUND

Infections with the three feline haemotropic mycoplasmas Mycoplasma haemofelis, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis cause feline infectious anemia. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of carriage of feline haemoplasma in Danish cats in different age groups. The presence was detected by a conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay on blood samples as well as by real-time PCR (RT-PCR).

RESULTS

The study revealed a prevalence of 14.9% Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum positive cats and 1.5% Mycoplasma haemofelis positive cats. No cats were found positive for Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis. The results showed a statistically significant higher prevalence in older (>8 years) cats compared to younger cats and a higher prevalence among domestic cats compared to purebred cats. As part of this study, we developed a cloning strategy to obtain Danish positive controls of haemoplasma 16S rRNA.

CONCLUSION

From convenience-sampled cats in Denmark, we found that 16.4% were carriers of feline haemotropic mycoplasmas. Haemoplasma was mostly found in older and domestic cats. The prevalence found in Denmark is similar to that found in several other European countries.

Molecular detection and prevalence of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas in Istanbul, Turkey

The aim of this study was to investigate Mycoplasma spp. species in blood samples of the domestic cats from the province of Istanbul, Turkey. Three hundred eighty four blood samples of client-owned cats were used for the identification of Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm) and Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMt) by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) assays. Out of 384 blood samples, 74 (19.3%) were positive for one of Mycoplasma species. The total prevalence of Mhf, CMhm and CMt infections was 9.9%, 17.7% and 0.8% respectively. The most common species was CMhm. Co-infections were mostly with Mhf/CMhm and the frequency was 8.1%. Two cats were infected with three species. The current study was the first molecular prevalence study of hemotropic mycoplasmas in Istanbul, reporting the presence of CMt for the first time in Turkey. Prevalence of feline mycoplasma was notably high in Istanbul and PCR assay could be preferred rather than the microscopic examination for the diagnosis.

Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of haemoplasmas from cats infected with multiple species

Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ (CMhm) and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ (CMt) are agents of feline haemoplasmosis and can induce anaemia in cats. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and phylogeny of haemoplasma species in cats from Brazil's capital and surrounding areas, and whether correlation with haematological abnormalities existed. Feline haemoplasmas were found in 13.8% of 432 cats. CMhm was the most prevalent species (in 13.8% of cats), followed by Mhf (11.1%) and CMt (4.4%). Over 80% of haemoplasma-infected cats harboured two or more feline haemoplasma species: 7.1% of cats were co-infected with Mhf/CMhm, 0.4% with CMhm/CMt and 3.9% with Mhf/CMhm/CMt. Male gender was significantly associated with haemoplasma infections. No association was found between qPCR haemoplasma status and haematological variables, however CMhm relative copy numbers were correlated with red blood cell (RBC) numbers and packed cell volume (PCV). Haemoplasma 16S rRNA gene sequences (> 1 Kb) were derived from co-infected cats using novel haemoplasma species-specific primers. This allowed 16S rRNA gene sequences to be obtained despite the high level of co-infection, which precluded the use of universal 16S rRNA gene primers. Within each species, the Mhf, CMhm and CMt sequences showed > 99.8%, > 98.5% and > 98.8% identity, respectively. The Mhf, CMhm and CMt sequences showed > 99.2%, > 98.4% and > 97.8% identity, respectively, with GenBank sequences. Phylogenetic analysis showed all Mhf sequences to reside in a single clade, whereas the CMhm and CMt sequences each grouped into three distinct subclades. These phylogeny findings suggest the existence of different CMhm and CMt strains.

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Over 80% of haemoplasma-infected cats had more than one haemoplasma species.

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The use of species-specific primers allowed derivation of 16S rDNA sequences from co-infected cats.

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Male gender was significantly associated with haemoplasma infection.

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Phylogenetic analysis showed subclade formation within two of the haemoplasma species sequences.

Molecular detection of haemotropic Mycoplasma species in urban and rural cats from Portugal

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of haemoplasma infection in cats in Portugal and to assess risk factors for infection.

METHODS

Real-time polymerase chain reaction techniques were used to assess 236 urban and rural cats from central and southern Portugal.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of haemoplasma in the target population was 27.1% (64/236), with individual species' prevalences as follows: 17.8% (42/236) 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm), 14.4% (34/236) Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) and only 5.9% (14/236) 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt). Multiple infections were detected in 8.1% (19/236) of the samples, with triple and double infections with Mhf and CMhm being most commonly detected (5.9% [14/236] of cats). Haemoplasma infection was significantly higher in shelter cats (P = 0.015) than in cats with other lifestyles (eg, free-roaming/house pet/blood donors). Haemoplasma prevalence was also higher in cats with feline immunodeficiency virus infection (FIV; P = 0.011). Although sex was not significantly associated with haemoplasma infection (P = 0.050), CMt was predominantly found in males (P = 0.032). Also, the presence of haemoplasma multiple infections was statistically associated with being in a shelter (P = 0.021), male (P = 0.057) and with FIV co-infection (P = 0.004). No evidence of an association between haemoplasma infection and geographical location, age or feline leukaemia virus co-infection was found.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The results obtained in our study are consistent with the documented worldwide prevalence of feline haemoplasma infections, suggesting that the three main feline haemoplasma species are common in Portugal.

Molecular detection of hemotrophic mycoplasmas among domiciled and free-roaming cats in Campo Grande, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

Hemoplasmas are bacteria living in feline red blood cells. Feline hemoplasmosis is frequently associated with old male cats that have access to the streets. This study aimed to detect the presence of hemoplasma speciess in domiciled and free-roaming cats in Campo Grande, state of Mato Grosso do Sul (MS), Brazil, using molecular techniques. Between January 2013 and April 2013, EDTA-whole blood samples were collected from 151 domestic cats (65 free-roaming and 86 domiciled cats). Samples were subjected to PCR assays targeting hemoplasmas 16S rRNA, followed by sequencing, BLAST analysis and phylogenetic analysis. Results show an occurrence of 36.4% for hemoplasmas. Twenty-three cats (15.2%) were positive for ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, 17 (11.2%) for M. haemofelis and 15 (9.9%) for ‘Candidatus M. turicensis’, from PCR. Coinfection by two or three hemoplasmas was found in 25 cats (16.6%). No statistically significant difference between genders or between lifestyles was observed for the presence of hemoplasmas among the cats. Results show different hemoplasma species are present in cat population (Campo Grande, MS, Brazil). It is suggested that a differential diagnosis for feline hemoplasmosis should be made when cats show nonspecific clinical signs of disease with systemic manifestation.

Prevalence of haemoplasma infections in stray cats in northern Italy

This study investigated the prevalence of feline haemoplasma infections in a number of stray cat colonies in Milan, Northern Italy. Blood samples from 260 stray cats were evaluated, with conventional PCR, for the presence of DNA associated with Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) and "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (CMhm). Odd ratios (OR) were calculated to identify risk factors for haemoplasma infections. PCR was positive in 86 out of 260 subjects (33.1%), with a prevalence of 10.8% (28/260 cats) for Mhf and 22.3% (58/260 cats) for CMhm. No coinfections were registered. There were significant associations between infections and season of sampling, that is, a negative association between winter sampling and a haemoplasma positive status (OR = 0.29, P = 0.001), or CMhm positive status (OR = 0.29, P = 0.01). Haemoplasma infections are common in stray cats in Milan. Thus, domestic cats with outdoor access should be routinely monitored and treated for ectoparasites to minimize risks of disease acquisition. Moreover, as these infections are transmitted via blood, feline blood donors from this area should be screened by PCR and preferably be drawn from a population of indoor cats regularly treated for fleas.

Survey of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum, haemotropic mycoplasmas and other arthropod-borne pathogens in cats from Albania

Background

Albania is a country on the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. The Mediterranean climate is favourable for the stable development of many arthropod species, which are incriminated as vectors for various agents. Recently, several papers have reported on epidemiological aspects of parasitic diseases including vector-borne disease agents of dogs with zoonotic characteristics in Albania. However, data on the epidemiology of feline parasitic and bacterial agents in Albania is scarce.

Methods

Serum and EDTA-blood samples collected from 146 domestic cats from Tirana during 2008 through 2010 were examined for exposure to Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Leishmania infantum, and Anaplasma spp. with IFAT, for infection with L. infantum, A. phagocytophilum, Bartonella spp. and haemotropic mycoplasmas with conventional PCR and real-time PCR and for Dirofilaria immitis with antigen ELISA. Additionally blood smear microscopy was carried out for detection of blood-borne pathogens.

Results

Antibodies to T. gondii (titre ≥1:100) were demonstrated in 91 cats (62.3%). Antibodies to N. caninum (titre ≥1:100), L. infantum (titre ≥1:64) and Anaplasma spp. (titre ≥1:100) were found in the serum of 15 (10.3%), 1 (0.7%) or 3 (2.1%) cats, respectively. DNA of haemotropic mycoplasmas was detected in the blood of 45 cats (30.8%), namely Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (21.9%), Mycoplasma haemofelis (10.3%), and Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (5.5%), with ten cats harbouring co-infections of two mycoplasmas each; blood from one cat was PCR positive for Bartonella henselae. No DNA of Leishmania spp. and A. phagocytophilum or circulating D. immitis antigen was detected in any cat sample. The overall prevalence of haemotropic mycoplasmas was significantly higher in male compared to female cats (40.6% vs. 24.1%, p = 0.0444); and age was associated positively with the prevalence of antibodies to T. gondii (p = 0.0008) and the percentage of haemotropic mycoplasma infection (p = 0.0454).

Conclusions

With the broad screening panel including direct and indirect methods applied in the present study, a wide spectrum of exposure to or infection with parasitic or bacterial agents was detected.

Prevalence and risk factor analysis of feline haemoplasma infection in New Zealand domestic cats using a real-time PCR assay

Haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are small epierythrocytic bacteria that have the potential to cause severe, life-threatening haemolytic anaemia. The aim of the current study was to evaluate feline haemoplasma prevalence using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from a convenience sample of New Zealand domestic cats, including blood film examination and a risk factor analysis. DNA was extracted from 200 blood samples submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for routine haematology over a 12-month period. Species-specific real-time PCR assays identified 62 cats that were positive for haemoplasma DNA, giving an overall prevalence of 31%. Twelve of the positive cats had dual infections. The prevalence of the three feline haemoplasmas was 25% for 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum', 7.5% for Mycoplasma haemofelis and 4.5% for 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt). All samples were positive for an internal control (feline 28S rDNA) by real-time PCR. Sensitivity and specificity of blood smear examination for haemoplasma infection in this study was 9.7% and 97.8%, respectively. Retroviral infection was tested using the Idexx Snap Feline Triple test on all samples. Twenty cats (10%) were feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) positive and 11 cats (5.5%) were feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) positive. Statistical comparisons, using multivariate logistic regression, indicated that positive FIV status, male gender and non-pedigree breed were significantly (P <0.05) associated with haemoplasma infection, with odds ratios of 10.16, 5.04 and 3.03, respectively. The results of this study demonstrate the prevalence of the three main feline haemoplasma species in New Zealand for the first time, with prevalences correlating with previous overseas studies. This is the first report of CMt in New Zealand.

Prevalence and co-infection of haemotropic mycoplasmas in Portuguese cats by real-time polymerase chain reaction

The diagnosis of feline haemoplasmosis has improved over the years, with several techniques enabling a clear and specific diagnosis, and where polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is considered as the 'gold standard'. The aim of this study was to survey the prevalence of feline haemoplasmas in 320 cats from the north-central region of Portugal by the use of real-time PCR, as well as to evaluate any associations between infection, clinical presentation and risk factors. The overall prevalence of infection by feline haemoplasmas was 43.43% (139/320), where 41.56% (133/320) corresponded to Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm), 12.81% (41/320) to Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), 4.38% (14/320) to Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum and 1.25% (4/320) to Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis. Almost 13% (47/320) of the samples were co-infected, with the most common co-infection being CMhm and Mhf (23.74%). Infection was found statistically significant with feline immunodeficiency/feline leukaemia virus status (P = 0.034), but no significant association was found for breed, sex, fertility status (neutered/spayed/entire), age, clinical status, living conditions (in/outdoor), anaemia status, or the presence/absence of ticks or fleas. Cats from north-central Portugal are infected with all the known feline haemoplasma species, with CMhm being the most common one. Prevalence of all feline haemoplasmas was higher than that reported previously in cats from other European countries, but similar to that described in Portugal for dogs. These data provide a better perspective regarding Mycoplasma species infection in Europe, and new information that helps us better understand feline haemoplasmosis.

Molecular detection of hemoplasma infection among cats from São Luís island, Maranhão, Brazil

Hemoplasmas are bacteria that infect erythrocytes, attaching to the red blood cell. There is a need for more reports of hemoplasma infection prevalence and molecular characterization among cats in Brazil since there are only few published reports. The present work aimed to detect and molecularly characterize the presence of hemotrophic mycoplasmas in domestic cats with outdoor access from São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil. Twenty cats (10%) were positive for Candidatus M. haemominutum, five (2.5%) for M. haemofelis, and four (2.%) for M. turicensis based on 16S rRNA gene PCRs. Five cats (2.5%) were co-positive for Candidatus M. haemominutum and M. haemofelis. PCR diagnosis was confirmed by sequencing; and phylogenetic analysis was based on 16S rRNA and rnpb genes.

Detection of Wolbachia DNA in blood for diagnosing filaria-associated syndromes in cats

A fundamental role for the endosymbiotic bacteria Wolbachia pipientis in the pathogenesis of Dirofilaria immitis infections has emerged in recent years. Diagnostic opportunities arising from this breakthrough have not yet been fully exploited. This study was aimed at developing conventional and real-time PCR assays to carry out a molecular survey in a convenience sample of cats living in an area where D. immitis is endemic and to evaluate the detection of bacterial DNA in blood as a surrogate assay for diagnosing filaria-associated syndromes in cats. COI and FtsZ loci were used as targets for D. immitis and Wolbachia PCR assays, respectively, and real-time TaqMan PCR assays were used only for Wolbachia. A convenience sample of 307 disease-affected or healthy cats examined at a University facility were PCR tested, and their medical records were investigated. Conventional nested PCR for Wolbachia amplified the endosymbionts of both D. immitis and D. repens, while real-time PCR was highly specific only for the former. Observed prevalences of 0.3 and 10.4% were found using conventional nested PCR assays for D. immitis and real-time PCR for Wolbachia, respectively. Similar prevalences were established using the Wolbachia nested PCR (98% concordance with real-time PCR). The group of Wolbachia-positive samples had a significantly higher proportion of subjects with respiratory signs (29.0% versus 9.7%; P = 0.002). The findings of this study indicate that a highly sensitive PCR assay can be used to detect the Wolbachia organism in the peripheral blood of cats with respiratory signs.

Prevalence and risk factor analysis of bovine hemoplasma infection by direct PCR in Eastern Hokkaido, Japan

The prevalence and risk factors of 2 bovine hemoplasma species-Mycoplasma wenyonii (Mw) and "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos" (CMh)-were examined by direct PCR using whole blood samples collected from 343 cattle in Eastern Hokkaido, Japan. The sensitivity of the direct PCR assay was 10-fold higher than the standard PCR assay, detecting 5 copies of bovine hemoplasma DNA per reaction. An epidemiological survey of sampling location, living conditions, age and bovine leukemia virus antibody was performed to assess infection risk factors. The prevalence rates were 38.5% for Mw and 39.1% for CMh, respectively, with an overall prevalence rate of 64.7% for all bovine hemoplasma infections. Significant differences were found in sampling location, living conditions and age. Compared with pastured cattle, farmed cattle were significantly more susceptible to infection with total hemoplasma species (P<0.001), and were particularly susceptible to CMh (P<0.001). Cattle that were 1-3 years of age were more susceptible to infection with hemoplasma compared with other age groups. Bovine leukemia virus infection status was not significantly associated with hemoplasma infections. Blood examination revealed significantly lower RBC, Hb, and PCV levels, and a higher MCV in infected cattle than in noninfected cattle.

First morphological characterization of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' using electron microscopy

At least three haemotropic mycoplasmas have been recognized in cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ (CMhm) and ‘Candidatus M. turicensis’ (CMt). The latter was originally identified in a Swiss pet cat with haemolytic anaemia and shown to be prevalent in domestic cats and wild felids worldwide using molecular methods. So far, there has been no confirmatory morphological evidence of the existence of CMt presumably due to low blood loads during infection while CMhm has only been characterized by light microscopy with discrepant results. This study aimed to provide for the first time electron microscopic characteristics of CMt and CMhm and to compare them to Mhf. Blood samples from cats experimentally infected with CMt, CMhm and Mhf were used to determine copy numbers in blood by real-time PCR and for transmission and scanning electron microscopy. High resolution scanning electron microscopy revealed CMt and CMhm to be discoid-shaped organisms of 0.3 μm in diameter attached to red blood cells (RBCs). In transmission electron microscopy of CMt, an oval organism of about 0.25 μm with several intracellular electron dense structures was identified close to the surface of a RBC. CMhm and CMt exhibited similar morphology to Mhf but had a smaller diameter. This is the first study to provide morphological evidence of CMt thereby confirming its status as a distinct haemoplasma species, and to present electron microscopic features of CMhm.

Haemotropic mycoplasmas: what's their real significance in cats?

Practical relevance

The feline haemotropic mycoplasmas (‘haemoplasmas') are a group of bacteria that can induce haemolytic anaemia in cats. Mycoplasma haemofelis is the most pathogenic of the species; ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ are less pathogenic. The natural route of transmission of feline haemoplasma infection has not been confirmed, but fleas are implicated. When disease results, common clinical signs are pallor, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, depression, dehydration and pyrexia. Treatment with tetracyclines or fluoroquinolones is usually effective at resolving clinical disease, but clearance of infection may not result.

Global importance

The feline haemoplasmas are found worldwide, although prevalence varies geographically.

Patient group

Older male non-pedigree cats are believed to be at increased risk of haemoplasma infection, although younger cats are possibly more likely to show clinical disease associated with M haemofelis.

Clinical challenges

The significance of feline haemoplasma infection is difficult to determine due to the existence of asymptomatic carrier cats and the variable pathogenicity of the haemoplasma species. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results should be interpreted in the light of the patient's clinical signs and haematological findings, infecting haemoplasma species and level of haemoplasma DNA present in the blood. Trial antibiotic treatment for haemoplasmosis may be warranted in suspected cases while awaiting PCR results.

Evidence base

Aspects of feline haemoplasmosis, particularly risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic methods and treatment, have been the focus of much recent research. This article draws on the current evidence base with a view to helping clinicians diagnose and manage cases more effectively.

Polymerase chain reaction survey of feline haemoplasma infections in Greece

The aim of this study was to use real-time polymerase chain reaction assays to determine the prevalence of three haemoplasma species in cats from Greece and to evaluate possible associations between haemoplasma infection and age, gender, feline immunodeficiency virus/feline leukaemia virus (FIV/FeLV) status and packed cell volume (PCV). Ninety-seven cats (24 ill anaemic, 55 ill non-anaemic, 18 healthy non-anaemic) were included in the study. Twenty cats (20.6%) were haemoplasma positive; seven cats were infected only with Mycoplasma haemofelis, 10 were infected only with ‘ Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and three were co-infected with M haemofelis and ‘ Candidatus M haemominutum’. ‘ Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ was not detected. Haemoplasma infection was associated with older age ( P=0.019). M haemofelis infection tended to be more common in anaemic cats ( P=0.058). No association between gender and haemoplasma infection, or haemoplasma relative copy number and PCV, was detected. Retroviral infection rates were very low with only one FeLV proviral positive cat found.

Feline hemotropic mycoplasmas

OBJECTIVE

To describe the current understanding of the etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of feline hemotropic mycoplasmosis (feline infectious anemia).

DATA SOURCES

Manuscripts published on hemotropic mycoplasmosis in cats and other animal species, based on a search of PubMed using the search terms 'hemoplasmas,''haemoplasmas,''hemotropic,''haemotropic,' and 'Haemobartonella,' as well as references published within manuscripts accessed.

HUMAN DATA SYNTHESIS

Although hemotropic bacteria such as Bartonella bacilliformis have been recognized in humans for over 100 years, it has only been in recent years that some of these have been identified as hemotropic mycoplasmas.

VETERINARY DATA SYNTHESIS

Three species of hemotropic mycoplasmas have been documented in cats worldwide, Mycoplasma haemofelis, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis,' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum.' These organisms were previously known as Haemobartonella felis, but are now known to be mycoplasmas. M. haemofelis is the most pathogenic species, and causes anemia in immunocompetent cats. Although 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' may be more capable of causing anemia in immunosuppressed cats, their pathogenicity remains controversial. Assays based on polymerase chain reaction technology are the most sensitive and specific diagnostic tests available for these organisms, because they remain uncultivable in the laboratory setting. Blood smears are unreliable for diagnosis of hemoplasmosis because of their lack of sensitivity and specificity.

CONCLUSIONS

Cats presenting to emergency/critical care specialists with hemolytic anemia should be tested using polymerase chain reaction assays for hemotropic mycoplasmas before instituting antimicrobial therapy. Positive test results for M. haemofelis suggest involvement of this organism in hemolytic anemia. Other differential diagnoses for hemolytic anemia should be considered in cats testing positive for 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum,' because the presence of these organisms is not always associated with anemia. Blood from infected cats should be handled with care because of the potential zoonotic nature of this infection.

Prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in healthy and unhealthy cats and dogs in Spain

The aims of the present study were to determine the prevalence of hemoplasmas in cats and dogs from the Barcelona area of Spain with the use of species-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays and to evaluate any associations between hemoplasma infection, clinical presentation, and vector-borne infections. Blood samples from cats (191) and dogs (182) were included and were classified as healthy (149) or unhealthy (224). Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid blood samples underwent DNA extraction and qPCR analysis. Mycoplasma haemofelis, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum', and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' were detected in cats, whereas Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' were detected in dogs, with prevalences of 3.7%, 9.9%, 0.5%, 14.3%, and 0.6%, respectively. In cats, no association between hemoplasma infection and health status, age, breed, presence of anemia, Feline leukemia virus status, and other vector-borne infections was found, but outdoor access (P = 0.009), male sex (P = 0.01), and Feline immunodeficiency virus status (P < 0.001) were significantly associated with hemoplasma infection. In dogs, sex, age, health status, presence of anemia, and breed were not significantly associated with hemoplasma infection, but a significant association was found between hemoplasma infection and vector-borne infections (P < 0.001). The present report documents the occurrence of feline 'Candidatus M. turicensis' and canine 'Candidatus M. haematoparvum' infections in Spain.