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Zhang X, Shen A, Zhang Z, Zhang T, Jiang L, Zhou W, Zhang Y, Sui X. Advancing molecular understanding in high moisture extrusion for plant-based meat analogs: Challenges and perspectives. Food Chem 2024; 460:140458. [PMID: 39029364 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 06/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, meat analogs based on plant proteins have received increasing attention. However, the process of high moisture extrusion (HME), the method for their preparation, has not been thoroughly explored, particularly in terms of elucidating the complex interactions that occur during extrusion, which remain challenging. These interactions arise from the various ingredients added during HME, including proteins, starches, edible gums, dietary fibers, lipids, and enzymes. These ingredients undergo intricate conformational changes and interactions under extreme conditions of high temperature, pressure, and shear, ultimately forming the fibrous structure of meat analogs. This review offers a overview of these ingredients and the molecular interaction changes they undergo during the extrusion process. Additionally, it delves into the major molecular interactions such as disulfide bonding, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions, providing detailed insights into each.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Ao Shen
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Zhaonan Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Tianyi Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Lianzhou Jiang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, National University of Singapore, 117542, Singapore
| | - Weibiao Zhou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, National University of Singapore, 117542, Singapore; Heilongjiang Joint Laboratory of Plant-Based Food Science (International Cooperation), Harbin 150030, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; Heilongjiang Joint Laboratory of Plant-Based Food Science (International Cooperation), Harbin 150030, China
| | - Xiaonan Sui
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, National University of Singapore, 117542, Singapore; Heilongjiang Joint Laboratory of Plant-Based Food Science (International Cooperation), Harbin 150030, China.
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2
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See XY, Chiang JH, Law LM, Osen R. High moisture extrusion of plant proteins: advances, challenges, and opportunities. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-22. [PMID: 37850862 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2268736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
High moisture extrusion is a widely used technology for producing fibrous meat analogues in an efficient and scalable manner. Extrusion of soy, wheat gluten, and pea is well-documented and related products are already available in the market. There has been growing interest to diversify the protein sources used for meat analogues due to concerns over food waste, monocropping and allergenicity. Optimizing the extrusion process for plant proteins (e.g., hemp, mung bean, fava bean) tends to be time consuming and relies on the operators' intuition and experience to control the process well. Simulating the extrusion process has been challenging so far due to the diverse inputs and configurations involved during extrusion. This review details the mechanism for fibrous structure formation and provides an overview of the extrusion parameters used for texturizing a broad range of plant protein sources. Referring to these data reduces the resources needed for optimizing the extrusion process for novel proteins and may be useful for future extrusion modeling efforts. The review also highlights potential challenges and opportunities for extruding plant proteins, which may help to accelerate the development and commercialization of related products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yi See
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Jie Hong Chiang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Li Min Law
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Raffael Osen
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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3
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Li J, Xia X, Shi C, Chen X, Tang H, Deng L. A Reliable Method for Determining the Degree of Orientation of Fibrous Foods Using Laser Transmission and Computer Vision. Foods 2023; 12:3541. [PMID: 37835194 PMCID: PMC10572238 DOI: 10.3390/foods12193541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The degree of organised alignment of fibre structures, referred to as the degree of orientation, significantly influences the textural properties and consumer acceptance of fibrous foods. To develop a new method to quantitatively characterise the fibre structure of such foods, a laser transmission imaging system is constructed to capture the laser beam spot on a sample, and the resulting image undergoes a series of image processing steps that use computer vision to translate the light and dark variations of the original images into distinct ellipses. The results show that the degree of orientation can be reasonably calculated from the ellipse obtained by fitting the outermost isopixel points. To validate the reliability of the newly developed method, we determine the degree of orientation of typical fibrous foods (extruded beef jerky, pork jerky, chicken jerky, and duck jerky). The ranking of the measured orientation agrees with the results of pseudocolour maps and micrographs, confirming the ability of the method to distinguish different fibrous foods. Furthermore, the relatively small coefficients of variation and the strong positive correlation between the degree of organisation and the degree of orientation confirm the reliability of this newly developed method.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Li Deng
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Animal Products Storage and Processing of Guizhou Province, School of Liquor and Food Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China; (J.L.); (X.X.); (C.S.); (X.C.); (H.T.)
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4
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Zink JI, Zeneli L, Windhab EJ. Micro-foaming of plant protein based meat analogues for tailored textural properties. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 7:100580. [PMID: 37811484 PMCID: PMC10551840 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Meat-like foods based on plant protein sources are supposed to be a solution for a more sustainable sustenance of the world population while also having a great potential to reduce the impact on climate change. However, the transition from animal-based products to more climate-friendly alternatives can only be accomplished when consumers' acceptance of plant-based alternatives is high. This article introduces a novel micro-foaming process for texturized High-Moisture Meat Analogues (HMMA) conferring enhanced structural properties and a new way to tailor the mechanical, appearance and textural characteristics of such products. First, the impact of nitrogen injection and subsequent foaming on processing pressures, temperatures and mechanical energy were assessed using soy protein concentrate and injecting nitrogen fractions in a controlled manner in the range of 0 wt% to 0.3 wt% into the hot protein melt. Direct relationships between related extrusion parameters and properties of extruded HMMAs were established. Furthermore, optimized processing parameters for stable manufacturing conditions were identified. Secondly, so produced HMMA foams were systematically analyzed using colourimetry, texture analysis, X-ray micro-tomography (XRT) and by performing water and Preprint submitted to Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies June 17, 2023 oil absorption tests. These measurements revealed that perceived lightness, textural hardness, cohesiveness and overrun can be tailored by adapting the injected N2 concentrations provided that the gas holding capacity of the protein matrix is high enough. Moreover, the liquid absorption properties of the foamed HMMA were greatly optimized. XRT measurements showed that the porosity at the center of the extrudate strands was the highest. The largest porosity of 53% was achieved with 0.2 wt% N2 injection, whilst 0.3 wt% N2 lead to destructuration of the HMMA foam structure through limited gas dispersion and wall slip layer formation. The latter can, nonetheless, be improved by adapting the processing parameters. All in all, this novel extrusion microfoaming process opens new possibilities to enhance the structural properties of plant-based HMMA and ultimately, consumers' acceptance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joël I. Zink
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Liridon Zeneli
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Erich J. Windhab
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
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5
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Taghian Dinani S, Zhang Y, Vardhanabhuti B, Jan van der Goot A. Enhancing textural properties in plant-based meat alternatives: The impact of hydrocolloids and salts on soy protein-based products. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 7:100571. [PMID: 37680696 PMCID: PMC10481179 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Consumer studies suggest that the meat-like texture of plant-based meat alternatives is crucial for the market success of these products. Many meat analogues contain wheat gluten, because it is cost-effective and give rise to nice fibrous structures. However, individuals with celiac disease cannot consume products containing wheat gluten producing a fibrous structure. To provide meat-like textures, different hydrocolloids with appropriate salt concentrations could be used. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of different hydrocolloids, including high acyl gellan gum, low acyl gellan gum, high methoxyl pectin, low methoxyl pectin, and xanthan at 2%, as well as two types of salts (CaCl2 and NaCl) at three concentrations (0%, 0.5%, and 1%) on the macrostructure, microstructure, and mechanical properties of plant-based meat alternatives containing only soy protein isolate and without wheat gluten. The addition of hydrocolloids and salts increased the cross-link bonds and structural compactness at the microscopic level and enhanced the fibrous structure at the microscopic level at different extent. These findings provide insight into how the addition of salts and hydrocolloids can effect plant-based meat alternatives without wheat gluten, which have practical implications for the food industry and are important for their success in the market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Taghian Dinani
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Division of Food, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Yunyu Zhang
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bongkosh Vardhanabhuti
- Division of Food, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Atze Jan van der Goot
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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6
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van der Sman R, van der Goot A. Hypotheses concerning structuring of extruded meat analogs. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 6:100510. [PMID: 37275388 PMCID: PMC10236473 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we review the physicochemical phenomena occurring during the structuring processes in the manufacturing of plant-based meat analogs via high-moisture-extrusion (HME). After the initial discussion on the input materials, we discuss the hypotheses behind the physics of the functional tasks that can be defined for HME. For these hypotheses, we have taken a broader view than only the scientific literature on plant-based meat analogs but incorporated also literature from soft matter physics and patent literature. Many of these hypotheses remain to be proven. Hence, we hope that this overview will inspire researchers to fill the still-open knowledge gaps concerning the multiscale structure of meat analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- R.G.M. van der Sman
- Wageningen Food Biobased Research, the Netherlands
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University, the Netherlands
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7
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Wang T, Kaur L, Beniwal AS, Furuhata Y, Aoyama H, Singh J. Physico-chemical and Textural Properties of 3D Printed Plant-based and Hybrid Soft Meat Analogs. PLANT FOODS FOR HUMAN NUTRITION (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2023:10.1007/s11130-023-01068-4. [PMID: 37199825 PMCID: PMC10363036 DOI: 10.1007/s11130-023-01068-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the physico-chemical and textural properties of 3D-printed pea protein-only and pea protein-chicken-based hybrid meat analogs. Both pea protein isolate (PPI)-only and hybrid cooked meat analogs had a similar moisture content of approximately 70%, which was similar to that of chicken mince. However, the protein content increased significantly with the amount of chicken in the hybrid paste undergoing 3D printing and cooking. Significant differences were observed in the hardness values of the non-printed cooked pastes and the 3D printed cooked counterparts, suggesting that the 3D printing process reduces the hardness of the samples and is a suitable method to produce a soft meal, and has significant potential in elderly health care. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that adding chicken to the plant protein matrix led to better fiber formation. PPI itself was not able to form any fibers merely by 3D printing and cooking in boiling water. Protein-protein interactions were also studied through the protein solubility test, which indicated that hydrogen bonding was the major bonding that contributed to the structure formation in cooked printed meat analogs. In addition, disulfide bonding was correlated with improved fibrous structures, as observed through SEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianxiao Wang
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Lovedeep Kaur
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
- Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
| | - Akashdeep Singh Beniwal
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Yasufumi Furuhata
- Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Suzuki-cho 3-1, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Aoyama
- Ajinomoto Co., Inc, Suzuki-cho 3-1, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Japan
| | - Jaspreet Singh
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
- Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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8
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Tan Y, Zhang Z, McClements DJ. Preparation of plant-based meat analogs using emulsion gels: Lipid-filled RuBisCo protein hydrogels. Food Res Int 2023; 167:112708. [PMID: 37087213 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
RuBisCo from duckweed is a sustainable source of plant proteins with a high water-solubility and good gelling properties. In this study, we examined the impact of RuBisCo concentration (9-33 wt %) and oil droplet concentration (0 to 14 wt %) on the properties of emulsion gels designed to simulate the properties of chicken breast. The color (L*a*b*), water holding capacity (WHC), textural profile analysis, shear modulus, and microstructure of the emulsion gels were measured. The gel hardness and WHC increased significantly with increasing protein concentration, reaching values equivalent to chicken breast. The lightness of the emulsion gels was less than that of chicken breast, due to the presence of pigments (such as polyphenols) in the protein. Shear modulus versus temperature measurements showed that gelation began when the protein solutions were heated to around 40 °C and then the gels hardened appreciably when the temperature was further raised to 90 °C. The shear modulus of the gels then increased during cooling, which was attributed to the strengthening of hydrogen bonds at lower temperatures. The hardness of the gels increased slightly but then decreased when the oil droplet concentration was raised from 0 to 14 %. The lightness of the protein gels increased after adding the oil droplets, which was attributed to increased light scattering. Microstructure analysis showed that the RuBisCo proteins formed a particulate gel after heating, with the oil droplets being in the interstices between the particulates. In summary, RuBisCo proteins can be dissolved at high concentrations and can form strong emulsion gels. Consequently, they may be able to mimic the composition and textural attributes of real chicken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunbing Tan
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Zhiyun Zhang
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - David Julian McClements
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; Department of Food Science & Bioengineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, 18 Xuezheng Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
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9
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Taghian Dinani S, Charles Carrillo MF, Boom R, van der Goot AJ. Quality improvement of plant-based meat alternatives by addition of iota carrageenan to pea protein–wheat gluten blend. Eur Food Res Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-023-04244-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
AbstractIn this study, the influence of iota carrageenan (IC) addition at different steps to the protein blends based on pea protein isolate (PPI) and wheat gluten (WG) as well as hydration mixing time and temperature of IC on the quality attributes of plant-based meat alternatives was studied. In more detail, IC was added before (B, in water with mixing times of 15 or 30 min and temperatures of 25 or 75 °C) or after (A, in powder form) the addition of PPI to the mixture with or without calcium chloride (Ca) in the formulation. The results showed that the addition of IC after PPI, especially combination with Ca resulted in the products with the most visible fibers, which can be considered as a quality improvement. IC addition to the formulations with or without Ca also increased the browning index, water holding capacity, tensile stress, and air bubble numbers compared to the PPI.WG formulation. However, no considerable difference in these parameters was found regarding the addition order of IC (before or after the addition of PPI). As the addition of IC after PPI hydration needs less energy for mixing, and, thus, less time for preparation, this order of addition can be recommended for improving the quality of plant-based meat alternatives containing IC. Therefore, hydration of IC in water, especially at high temperatures, is not necessary for the production of plant-based meat alternatives produced in the high-temperature shear cell (HTSC).
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10
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Ji Y, Wang Z, Deng Q, Chen J, He Z, Zeng M, Qin F, Pan H. Soy Protein Hydrolysates Affect the Structural and Mechanical Properties of Soy Protein-Wheat Gluten Extrudates Using High Moisture Extrusion. Foods 2023; 12:foods12050912. [PMID: 36900429 PMCID: PMC10001190 DOI: 10.3390/foods12050912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effect of hydrolyzed soy protein isolate (HSPI) as a plasticizer in the soy protein mixture-wheat gluten (SP-WG) extrudates on its structural and mechanical properties during high moisture extrusion. Those SP were prepared by mixing soy protein isolate (SPI) and HSPI with different ratios. HSPI primarily consisted of small molecular weight peptides measured with size exclusion chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The elastic modulus of SP-WG blends decreased with increased HSPI contents through the closed cavity rheometer. Adding HSPI at low concentrations (≤30 wt% of SP) enhanced a fibrous appearance and higher mechanical anisotropy while adding more HSPI resulted in a compact and brittle structure and tended to be isotropic. It can be concluded that the partial addition of HSPI as a plasticizer can promote the formation of a fibrous structure with enhanced mechanical anisotropy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Correspondence: (Z.W.); (H.P.)
| | - Qian Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhiyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Maomao Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Fang Qin
- International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Hongyang Pan
- International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Correspondence: (Z.W.); (H.P.)
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11
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Nieuwland M, Heijnis W, van der Goot AJ, Hamoen R. XRT for visualizing microstructure of extruded meat replacers. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 6:100457. [PMID: 36815995 PMCID: PMC9929671 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
X-Ray Tomography (XRT) was used to visualize the microstructure of extruded meat replacers. The high moisture extrudates contained lamella, that became visible upon pulling the extrudate apart. In frozen state, these lamella could be visualized with XRT. The freezing increased the density difference between the water-rich and protein-rich layers, thus increasing the contrast obtained in the XRT. Differences in the physical structure were reflected in the measured structure. In non-frozen samples, no lamella were visible, indicating insufficient contrast. Because of the contrast obtained in frozen samples, we conclude that the XRT technique is a valuable addition to investigate extrudate structure, that can be used to quantify differences in extrudates obtained by for example variation in composition. Here we showed a higher lamella thickness for soy protein isolate (SPI) compared to more fibre-rich soy protein samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Nieuwland
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Walter Heijnis
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Atze-Jan van der Goot
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Remco Hamoen
- Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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12
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Interaction of starch with some food macromolecules during the extrusion process and its effect on modulating physicochemical and digestible properties. A review. CARBOHYDRATE POLYMER TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carpta.2023.100294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
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13
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Taghian Dinani S, Broekema NL, Boom R, van der Goot AJ. Investigation potential of hydrocolloids in meat analogue preparation. Food Hydrocoll 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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14
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Nasrollahzadeh F, Roman L, Skov K, Jakobsen LM, Trinh BM, Tsochatzis ED, Mekonnen T, Corredig M, Dutcher JR, Martinez MM. A comparative investigation of seed storage protein fractions: The synergistic impact of molecular properties and composition on anisotropic structuring. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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15
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Snel SJ, Bellwald Y, van der Goot AJ, Beyrer M. Novel rotating die coupled to a twin-screw extruder as a new route to produce meat analogues with soy, pea and gluten. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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16
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Huang M, Mehany T, Xie W, Liu X, Guo S, Peng X. Use of food carbohydrates towards the innovation of plant-based meat analogs. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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17
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Oppen D, Grossmann L, Weiss J. Insights into characterizing and producing anisotropic food structures. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:1158-1176. [PMID: 35997311 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2113365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Besides the flavor profile of food, texture plays a major role in terms of the acceptance and likeability of food products. In contrast to gel-like homogenous isotropic structures, where the characterization is established and structure-texture mechanisms are well understood, there is still a lack of knowledge in the field of anisotropic complex food matrices. Food systems that show anisotropic properties in terms of macroscopic mechanical anisotropy as in grown meat, or mixed complex systems where anisotropic shaped particles or fibers are embedded into an isotropic matrix are challenging to characterize, hence the structure-texture correlation is not trivial to understand. In this paper, we bring together the state of the art of different anisotropic structures as a source of food, their formation in terms of structured plant proteins, and consequently the structure-texture correlation of those. Characteristic terms and properties to differentiate between anisotropic systems are introduced with the purpose to facilitate characterization of those. Based on the here provided terms and characteristics, further studies toward understanding such systems and their perception can be conducted. Beyond that, a first opinion on crucial influencing factors on the perception of anisotropic systems and their mechanistic background is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Oppen
- Department of Food Material Science, Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Lutz Grossmann
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jochen Weiss
- Department of Food Material Science, Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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18
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Fu J, Sun C, Chang Y, Li S, Zhang Y, Fang Y. Structure analysis and quality evaluation of plant-based meat analogs. J Texture Stud 2022. [PMID: 35711124 DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The growing world's population increases the demand of proteins. Meat products as the major source of high protein food are facing environmental impacts and animal welfare issues. Therefore, plant-based meat analogs are developed and gain a foothold in global markets. The structure design, sensory attributes and nutrient characteristics of meat analogs are crucial points to match the real meat. This review aimed to systematically introduce the structural analysis methods and evaluate meat analog products from quality-related attributes. First, various strategies of analyzing the fibrous structure of meat analogs were illustrated, including microscopic imaging and several optical techniques. Then, representative techniques such as NMR and AFM-IR for analyzing the distribution of moisture and lipid in meat analogs are introduced. In terms of quality, we elaborated on the texture and sensory evaluation methods and dialectically analyzed meat analogs' nutrition, which can provide a guidance for the advanced development of meat analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialing Fu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cuixia Sun
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuyang Chang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Saiya Li
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing of Sichuan, Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yapeng Fang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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19
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Zhang X, Zhao Y, Zhao X, Sun P, Zhao D, Jiang L, Sui X. The texture of plant protein-based meat analogs by high moisture extrusion: A review. J Texture Stud 2022. [PMID: 35580199 DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Meat analogs produced by high moisture extrusion (HME) are considered to be one of the products that have great potential for replacing real meat. The key issue as a meat analog is whether the texture can meet the standards of real meat. Nowadays, there have been some advances in the textural characterization of meat analogs, which are discussed in detail in this review. Firstly, this review describes the current characterizations of meat analogs in terms of fiber structure, hardness, springiness, tensile resistant force and sensory evaluation. Then, methods for analyzing the texture of meat analogs, such as texture analyzer, microstructure-based methods and other methods for characterizing fiber structure, are summarized. In addition, these characterizations are discussed in relation to the factors that influence the texture of meat analogs during HME. Finally, we propose priorities and some promising methods for future meat analogs conformation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaohui Zhao
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Pin Sun
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Dongshun Zhao
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Lianzhou Jiang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaonan Sui
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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20
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Zhang Z, Kobata K, Pham H, Kos D, Tan Y, Lu J, McClements DJ. Production of Plant-Based Seafood: Scallop Analogs Formed by Enzymatic Gelation of Pea Protein-Pectin Mixtures. Foods 2022; 11:851. [PMID: 35327273 PMCID: PMC8955361 DOI: 10.3390/foods11060851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the possibility of using a phase separation, mixing, and enzymatic gelation approach to construct seafood analogs from plant protein-polysaccharide mixtures with properties mimicking real seafood. Heat-denatured pea protein (10%, w/w) and pectin (0-1%, w/w) were mixed to produce phase separated biopolymer blends. These blends were then subjected to mild shearing (350 rpm) to obtain fiber-like structures, which were then placed in molds and set by gelling the pea proteins using transglutaminase (2%, w/w). The appearance, texture, and cooking properties of the resulting scallop analogs were characterized and compared to those of real scallop. The presence of the pectin promoted the formation of a honeycomb structure in the scallop analogs, and microscopic orientation of the proteins was observed in the plane parallel to the applied shear flow. Lower pectin concentrations (0.5%, w/w) led to stronger gels with better water holding capacity than higher ones (1.0%, w/w). The appearance and texture of the plant-based scallop analogs were like those of real scallop after grilling, indicating the potential of using this soft matter physics approach to create plant-based seafood analogs. One of the main advantages of this method is that it does not require any expensive dedicated equipment, such as an extruder or shear cell technology, which may increase its commercial viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyun Zhang
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Kanon Kobata
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Hung Pham
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Dorian Kos
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Yunbing Tan
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Jiakai Lu
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - David Julian McClements
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
- 240 Chenoweth Laboratory, 102 Holdsworth Way, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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21
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Schreuders FK, Schlangen M, Bodnár I, Erni P, Boom RM, van der Goot AJ. Structure formation and non-linear rheology of blends of plant proteins with pectin and cellulose. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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22
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Chen D, Jones OG, Campanella OH. Plant protein-based fibers: Fabrication, characterization, and potential food applications. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021:1-25. [PMID: 34904477 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.2004991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Proteins from plants have been considered as safer, healthier, and more sustainable resources than their animal counterparts. However, incomplete amino acid composition and relatively poor functionality limit their applications in foods. Structuring plant proteins to fibrous architectures enhances their physicochemical properties, which can favor various food applications. This review primarily focuses on fabrication of fibers from plant proteins via self-assembly, electrospinning, solution blow spinning, wet spinning, and high-temperature shear, as well as on several applications where such fibrous proteins assemble in quality foods. The changes of protein structure and protein-protein interactions during fiber production are discussed in detail, along with the effects of fabrication conditions and protein sources on the morphology and function of the fibers. Self-assembly requires proteolysis and subsequent peptide aggregation under specific conditions, which can be influenced by pH, salt and protein type. The spinning strategy is more scalable and produces uniformed fibers with larger length scales suitable for encapsulation, food packaging and sensor substrates. Significant progress has been made on high-temperature shear (including extrusion)-induced fibers responsible for desirable texture in meat analogues. Structuring plant proteins adds values for broadened food applications, but it remains challenging to keep processes cost-effective and environmentally friendly using food grade solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Owen Griffith Jones
- Whistler Centre for Carbohydrate Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.,Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Osvaldo H Campanella
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.,Whistler Centre for Carbohydrate Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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23
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Cornet SH, Bühler JM, Gonçalves R, Bruins ME, van der Sman RG, van der Goot AJ. Apparent universality of leguminous proteins in swelling and fibre formation when mixed with gluten. Food Hydrocoll 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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24
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Schreuders FK, Schlangen M, Kyriakopoulou K, Boom RM, van der Goot AJ. Texture methods for evaluating meat and meat analogue structures: A review. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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25
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Tan M, Nawaz MA, Buckow R. Functional and food application of plant proteins – a review. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1955918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Melvin Tan
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Malik Adil Nawaz
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - Roman Buckow
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Centre for Advanced Food Engineering, Darlington, NSW, Australia
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26
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Wittek P, Ellwanger F, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Morphology Development and Flow Characteristics during High Moisture Extrusion of a Plant-Based Meat Analogue. Foods 2021; 10:1753. [PMID: 34441530 PMCID: PMC8395023 DOI: 10.3390/foods10081753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-based meat analogues that mimic the characteristic structure and texture of meat are becoming increasingly popular. They can be produced by means of high moisture extrusion (HME), in which protein-rich raw materials are subjected to thermomechanical stresses in the extruder at high water content (>40%) and then forced through a cooling die. The cooling die, or generally the die section, is known to have a large influence on the products' anisotropic structures, which are determined by the morphology of the underlying multi-phase system. However, the morphology development in the process and its relationship with the flow characteristics are not yet well understood and, therefore, investigated in this work. The results show that the underlying multi-phase system is already present in the screw section of the extruder. The morphology development mainly takes place in the tapered transition zone and the non-cooled zone, while the cooled zone only has a minor influence. The cross-sectional contraction and the cooling generate elongational flows and tensile stresses in the die section, whereas the highest tensile stresses are generated in the transition zone and are assumed to be the main factor for structure formation. Cooling also has an influence on the velocity gradients and, therefore, the shear stresses; the highest shear stresses are generated towards the die exit. The results further show that morphology development in the die section is mainly governed by deformation and orientation, while the breakup of phases appears to play a minor role. The size of the dispersed phase, i.e., size of individual particles, is presumably determined in the screw section and then stays the same over the die length. Overall, this study reveals that morphology development and flow characteristics need to be understood and controlled for a successful product design in HME, which, in turn, could be achieved by a targeted design of the extruders die section.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (F.E.); (H.P.K.)
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27
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Wittek P, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Blending Proteins in High Moisture Extrusion to Design Meat Analogues: Rheological Properties, Morphology Development and Product Properties. Foods 2021; 10:1509. [PMID: 34209076 PMCID: PMC8307526 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
High moisture extrusion (HME) of meat analogues is often performed with raw materials containing multiple components, e.g., blends of different protein-rich raw materials. For instance, blends of soy protein isolate (SPI) and another component, such as wheat gluten, are used particularly frequently. The positive effect of blending on product texture is well known but not yet well understood. Therefore, this work targets investigating the influence of blending in HME at a mechanistic level. For this, SPI and a model protein, whey protein concentrate (WPC), were blended at three different ratios (100:0, 85:15, 70:30) and extruded at typical HME conditions (55% water content, 115/125/133 °C material temperature). Process conditions, rheological properties, morphology development, product structure and product texture were analysed. With increasing WPC percentage, the anisotropic structures became more pronounced and the anisotropy index (AI) higher. The achieved AI from the extrudates with a ratio of 70:30 (SPI:WPC) were considerably higher than comparable extrudates reported in other studies. In all extrudates, a multiphase system was visible whose morphology had changed due to the WPC addition. The WPC led to the formation of a much smaller dispersed phase compared to the overlying multiphase structure, the size of which depends on the thermomechanical stresses. These findings demonstrate that targeted mixing of protein-rich raw materials could be a promising method to tailor the texture of extruded meat analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (H.P.K.)
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28
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Saldanha do Carmo C, Knutsen SH, Malizia G, Dessev T, Geny A, Zobel H, Myhrer KS, Varela P, Sahlstrøm S. Meat analogues from a faba bean concentrate can be generated by high moisture extrusion. FUTURE FOODS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
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29
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McClements DJ, Grossmann L. The science of plant-based foods: Constructing next-generation meat, fish, milk, and egg analogs. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4049-4100. [PMID: 34056859 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Consumers are increasingly demanding foods that are more ethical, sustainable and nutritious to improve the health of themselves and the planet. The food industry is currently undergoing a revolution, as both small and large companies pivot toward the creation of a new generation of plant-based products to meet this consumer demand. In particular, there is an emphasis on the production of plant-based foods that mimic those that omnivores are familiar with, such as meat, fish, egg, milk, and their products. The main challenge in this area is to simulate the desirable appearance, texture, flavor, mouthfeel, and functionality of these products using ingredients that are isolated entirely from botanical sources, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. The molecular, chemical, and physical properties of plant-derived ingredients are usually very different from those of animal-derived ones. It is therefore critical to understand the fundamental properties of plant-derived ingredients and how they can be assembled into structures resembling those found in animal products. This review article provides an overview of the current status of the scientific understanding of plant-based foods and highlights areas where further research is required. In particular, it focuses on the chemical, physical, and functional properties of plant-derived ingredients; the processing operations that can be used to convert these ingredients into food products; and, the science behind the formulation of vegan meat, fish, eggs, and milk alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lutz Grossmann
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
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30
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Hadi J, Brightwell G. Safety of Alternative Proteins: Technological, Environmental and Regulatory Aspects of Cultured Meat, Plant-Based Meat, Insect Protein and Single-Cell Protein. Foods 2021; 10:1226. [PMID: 34071292 PMCID: PMC8230205 DOI: 10.3390/foods10061226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Food security and environmental issues have become global crises that need transformative solutions. As livestock production is becoming less sustainable, alternative sources of proteins are urgently required. These include cultured meat, plant-based meat, insect protein and single-cell protein. Here, we describe the food safety aspects of these novel protein sources, in terms of their technological backgrounds, environmental impacts and the necessary regulatory framework for future mass-scale production. Briefly, cultured meat grown in fetal bovine serum-based media can be exposed to viruses or infectious prion, in addition to other safety risks associated with the use of genetic engineering. Plant-based meat may contain allergens, anti-nutrients and thermally induced carcinogens. Microbiological risks and allergens are the primary concerns associated with insect protein. Single-cell protein sources are divided into microalgae, fungi and bacteria, all of which have specific food safety risks that include toxins, allergens and high ribonucleic acid (RNA) contents. The environmental impacts of these alternative proteins can mainly be attributed to the production of growth substrates or during cultivation. Legislations related to novel food or genetic modification are the relevant regulatory framework to ensure the safety of alternative proteins. Lastly, additional studies on the food safety aspects of alternative proteins are urgently needed for providing relevant food governing authorities with sufficient data to oversee that the technological progress in this area is balanced with robust safety standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hadi
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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31
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Bot A, Dewi BPC, Venema P. Phase-Separating Binary Polymer Mixtures: The Degeneracy of the Virial Coefficients and Their Extraction from Phase Diagrams. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:7862-7878. [PMID: 33778298 PMCID: PMC7992149 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Edmond-Ogston model for phase separation in binary polymer mixtures is based on a truncated virial expansion of the Helmholtz free energy up to the second-order terms in the concentration of the polymers. The second virial coefficients (B 11, B 12, B 22) are the three parameters of the model. Analytical solutions are presented for the critical point and the spinodal in terms of molar concentrations. The calculation of the binodal is simplified by splitting the problem into a part that can be solved analytically and a (two-dimensional) problem that generally needs to be solved numerically, except in some specific cases. The slope of the tie-lines is identified as a suitable parameter that can be varied between two well-defined limits (close to and far away from the critical point) to perform the numerical part of the calculation systematically. Surprisingly, the analysis reveals a degenerate behavior within the model in the sense that a critical point or tie-line corresponds to an infinite set of triplets of second virial coefficients (B 11, B 12, B 22). Since the Edmond-Ogston model is equivalent to the Flory-Huggins model up to the second order of the expansion in the concentrations, this degeneracy is also present in the Flory-Huggins model. However, as long as the virial coefficients predict the correct critical point, the shape of the binodal is relatively insensitive to the specific choice of the virial coefficients, except in a narrow range of values for the cross-virial coefficient B 12.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Bot
- Laboratory
of Physics and Physical Chemistry of Foods, Department of Agrotechnology
and Food Sciences, Wageningen University
and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, NL-6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Unilever
Foods Innovation Centre, Bronland 14, NL-6708 WH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Belinda P. C. Dewi
- Laboratory
of Physics and Physical Chemistry of Foods, Department of Agrotechnology
and Food Sciences, Wageningen University
and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, NL-6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Venema
- Laboratory
of Physics and Physical Chemistry of Foods, Department of Agrotechnology
and Food Sciences, Wageningen University
and Research, Bornse Weilanden 9, NL-6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
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32
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Zhang T, Dou W, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Zhang Y, Jiang L, Sui X. The development history and recent updates on soy protein-based meat alternatives. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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33
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Beniwal AS, Singh J, Kaur L, Hardacre A, Singh H. Meat analogs: Protein restructuring during thermomechanical processing. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:1221-1249. [PMID: 33590609 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Increasing awareness of inefficient meat production and its future impact on global food security has led the food industry to look for a sustainable approach. Meat products have superior sensorial perception, because of their molecular composition and fibrous structure. Current understanding in the science of food structuring has enabled the utilization of alternative or nonmeat protein ingredients to create novel structured matrices that could resemble the textural functionality of real meat. The physicochemical and structural changes that occur in concentrated protein systems during thermomechanical processing lead to the creation of a fibrous or layered meat-like texture. Phase transitions in concentrated protein systems during protein-protein, protein-polysaccharide, protein-lipid, and protein-water interactions significantly influence the texture and the overall sensory quality of meat analogs. This review summarizes the roles of raw materials (moisture, protein type and concentration, lipids, polysaccharides, and air) and processing parameters (temperature, pH, and shear) in modulating the behavior of the protein phase during the restructuring process (structure-function-process relationship). The big challenge for the food industry is to manufacture concept-based (such as beef-like, chicken-like, etc.) meat analogs with controlled structural attributes. This information will be useful in developing superior meat analogs that fulfill consumer expectations when replacing meat in their diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akashdeep Singh Beniwal
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jaspreet Singh
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Lovedeep Kaur
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Allan Hardacre
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Harjinder Singh
- Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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34
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McClements DJ, Weiss J, Kinchla AJ, Nolden AA, Grossmann L. Methods for Testing the Quality Attributes of Plant-Based Foods: Meat- and Processed-Meat Analogs. Foods 2021; 10:260. [PMID: 33513814 PMCID: PMC7911933 DOI: 10.3390/foods10020260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The modern food system is seeing a change in consumption patterns provoked by several drivers-including ethical, health, and environmental concerns-that are increasing the sales of meat analog foods. This change is accompanied by increased research and development activities in the area of plant-based meats. The aim of the present review is to describe methods that are being employed by scientists to analyze and characterize the properties of meat alternatives and to propose standardized methods that could be utilized in the future. In particular, methods to determine the proximate composition, microstructure, appearance, textural properties, water-holding properties, cooking resilience, and sensory attributes, of plant-based meat are given. The principles behind these methods are presented, their utility is critically assessed, and practical examples will be discussed. This article will help to guide further studies and to choose appropriate methods to assess raw materials, processes, products, and consumption behavior of meat analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Julian McClements
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (D.J.M.); (A.J.K.); (A.A.N.)
| | - Jochen Weiss
- Department of Food Material Science, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 21/25, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Amanda J. Kinchla
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (D.J.M.); (A.J.K.); (A.A.N.)
| | - Alissa A. Nolden
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (D.J.M.); (A.J.K.); (A.A.N.)
| | - Lutz Grossmann
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (D.J.M.); (A.J.K.); (A.A.N.)
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35
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Wittek P, Zeiler N, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. High Moisture Extrusion of Soy Protein: Investigations on the Formation of Anisotropic Product Structure. Foods 2021; 10:foods10010102. [PMID: 33418980 PMCID: PMC7825338 DOI: 10.3390/foods10010102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The high moisture extrusion of plant proteins is well suited for the production of protein-rich products that imitate meat in their structure and texture. The desired anisotropic product structure of these meat analogues is achieved by extrusion at high moisture content (>40%) and elevated temperatures (>100 °C); a cooling die prevents expansion of the matrix and facilitates the formation of the anisotropic structure. Although there are many studies focusing on this process, the mechanisms behind the structure formation still remain largely unknown. Ongoing discussions are based on two very different hypotheses: structure formation due to alignment and stabilization of proteins at the molecular level vs. structure formation due to morphology development in multiphase systems. The aim of this paper is, therefore, to investigate the mechanism responsible for the formation of anisotropic structures during the high moisture extrusion of plant proteins. A model protein, soy protein isolate, is extruded at high moisture content and the changes in protein–protein interactions and microstructure are investigated. Anisotropic structures are achieved under the given conditions and are influenced by the material temperature (between 124 and 135 °C). Extrusion processing has a negligible effect on protein–protein interactions, suggesting that an alignment of protein molecules is not required for the structure formation. Instead, the extrudates show a distinct multiphase system. This system consists of a water-rich, dispersed phase surrounded by a water-poor, i.e., protein-rich, continuous phase. These findings could be helpful in the future process and product design of novel plant-based meat analogues.
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Cornet SHV, Snel SJE, Schreuders FKG, van der Sman RGM, Beyrer M, van der Goot AJ. Thermo-mechanical processing of plant proteins using shear cell and high-moisture extrusion cooking. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:3264-3280. [PMID: 33406893 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1864618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of plant-based meat analogues offers a way to reduce the environmental footprint of the human diet. High-moisture extrusion cooking (HMEC) and shear cell processing both rely on thermo-mechanical treatment of proteins to product fibrous meat-like products. However, the mechanisms underlying these processes are not well understood. In this review we discuss the effect of thermo-mechanical processing on the physicochemical properties and phase behavior of proteins and protein mixtures. The HMEC and shear cell processes are comparable in their basic unit operations, which are (1) mixing and hydration, (2) thermo-mechanical treatment, and (3) cooling. An often overlooked part of the extruder that could be crucial to fibrillation is the so-called breaker plate, which is situated between the barrel and die sections. We found a lack of consensus on the effect of heat on protein-protein interactions, and that the experimental tools to study protein-protein interactions are limited. The different mechanisms for structure formation proposed in literature all consider the deformation and alignment of the melt. However, the mechanisms differ in their underlying assumptions. Further investigation using novel and dedicated tools is required to fully understand these thermo-mechanical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven H V Cornet
- Food Process Engineering, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Silvia J E Snel
- Food Process Engineering, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Food Process Engineering, School of Engineering, Sion, The Netherlands
| | - Floor K G Schreuders
- Food Process Engineering, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud G M van der Sman
- Food Process Engineering, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Beyrer
- Food Process Engineering, School of Engineering, Sion, The Netherlands
| | - Atze Jan van der Goot
- Food Process Engineering, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Abstract
The increasing size and affluence of the global population have led to a rising demand for high-protein foods such as dairy and meat. Because it will be impossible to supply sufficient protein to everyone solely with dairy and meat, we need to transition at least part of our diets toward protein foods that are more sustainable to produce. The best way to convince consumers to make this transition is to offer products that easily fit into their current habits and diets by mimicking the original foods. This review focuses on methods of creating an internal microstructure close to that of the animal-based originals. One can directly employ plant products, use intermediates such as cell factories, or grow cultured meat by using nutrients of plant origin. We discuss methods of creating high-quality alternatives to meat and dairy foods, describe their relative merits, and provide an outlook toward the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Kyriakopoulou
- Food Process Engineering Laboratory, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Julia K Keppler
- Food Process Engineering Laboratory, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Atze Jan van der Goot
- Food Process Engineering Laboratory, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Remko M Boom
- Food Process Engineering Laboratory, Agrotechnology and Food Sciences Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;
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Cornet SH, Edwards D, van der Goot AJ, van der Sman RG. Water release kinetics from soy protein gels and meat analogues as studied with confined compression. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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39
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Peng Y, Dewi DPAP, Kyriakopoulou K, van der Goot AJ. Effect of calcium hydroxide and fractionation process on the functional properties of soy protein concentrate. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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40
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Tian B, Wang Z, de Campo L, Gilbert EP, Dalgliesh RM, Velichko E, van der Goot AJ, Bouwman WG. Small angle neutron scattering quantifies the hierarchical structure in fibrous calcium caseinate. Food Hydrocoll 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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41
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He J, Evans NM, Liu H, Shao S. A review of research on plant-based meat alternatives: Driving forces, history, manufacturing, and consumer attitudes. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:2639-2656. [PMID: 33336979 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The topic of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) has been discussed for several decades, but it has only recently become one of the hottest topics in the food and research communities. With the purpose of investigating the current situation of scientific research on PBMA and determining future research opportunities, the driving forces for PBMA development, a brief history of its progression, key technologies required for production, and the resulting consumer attitudes are summarized. Environmental, human health, and animal welfare concerns are the main factors that have driven the development of PBMA. Although its history can trace back to ancient Asian civilizations, the first generation of PBMA originated in 1960s and a new generation of PBMA designed for carnivore was developed in recently years. Structuring methods such as extrusion and shear cell techniques have been widely studied, but improvements toward the overall appearance and flavor, biological and chemical safety control, as well as the selection of protein sources are also very important for PBMA production. The consumer acceptance of PBMA remains unsatisfactory but is continually improving. Based on those knowledge, future research opportunities include developing more effective strategies for consumer education, providing more scientific evidence for the health properties of PBMA, finding more suitable protein sources to improve the quality of the final products, improving the appearance and flavor, further examining and securing the chemical safety, exploring the structure formation mechanism during the extraction or shearing processes, and developing methods and standards for a quality evaluation of PBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang He
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,College of Life and Environmental Science, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde, Hunan, China
| | - Natasha Marie Evans
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Huaizhi Liu
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Suqin Shao
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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42
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Wang Z, Dekkers BL, van der Goot AJ. Process history of calcium caseinate affects fibre formation. J FOOD ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.109866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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43
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Dewi BP, van der Linden E, Bot A, Venema P. Second order virial coefficients from phase diagrams. Food Hydrocoll 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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44
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Schreuders FK, Dekkers BL, Bodnár I, Erni P, Boom RM, van der Goot AJ. Comparing structuring potential of pea and soy protein with gluten for meat analogue preparation. J FOOD ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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45
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Pietsch VL, Werner R, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. High moisture extrusion of wheat gluten: Relationship between process parameters, protein polymerization, and final product characteristics. J FOOD ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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46
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47
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Duque-Estrada P, Berton-Carabin CC, Nieuwkoop M, Dekkers BL, Janssen AEM, van der Goot AJ. Protein Oxidation and In Vitro Gastric Digestion of Processed Soy-Based Matrices. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:9591-9600. [PMID: 31414795 PMCID: PMC6716211 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Process conditions that are applied to make structured soy-protein-based food commonly include high temperatures. Those conditions can induce protein oxidation, leading to a decrease in their susceptibility to proteolysis by digestive enzymes. We aimed to investigate the effects of thermomechanical processing on oxidation and in vitro gastric digestion of commercial soy protein ingredients. Samples were sheared at 100 to 140 °C and characterized for acid uptake, carbonyl content, electrophoresis, and surface hydrophobicity. The enzymatic hydrolysis was determined in simulated gastric conditions. Protein ingredients were already oxidized and showed higher surface hydrophobicity and hydrolysis rate compared with those of the processed matrices. However, no clear correlation between the level of carbonyls and the hydrolysis rate was found. Therefore, we conclude that gastric digestion is mostly driven by the matrix structure and composition and the available contact area between the substrate and proteolytic enzymes.
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Wang Z, Tian B, Boom R, van der Goot AJ. Understanding the role of air and protein phase on mechanical anisotropy of calcium caseinate fibers. Food Res Int 2019; 121:862-869. [PMID: 31108819 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Calcium caseinate dispersions can be transformed into anisotropic, fibrous materials using the concept of shear-induced structuring. The aim of this study is to further investigate the relative importance of air bubbles and protein on the mechanical anisotropy of calcium caseinate material. In this study, the effect of air on mechanical anisotropy of these fibrous materials was described with a load-bearing model, with the void fraction, and the bubble length and width as input parameters. The anisotropy of the protein phase was estimated using materials obtained from deaerated dispersions after shearing at different shear rates. We concluded that the deformation of air bubbles can only partly explain the mechanical anisotropy; the anisotropy of the protein phase is more important. Based on all results, we further concluded that the anisotropy of the protein phase was affected by the air bubbles present during the structuring process. This effect was explained by locally higher shear rate in the protein matrix during the structuring process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaojun Wang
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Bei Tian
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Science, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629JB Delft, the Netherlands.
| | - Remko Boom
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Atze Jan van der Goot
- Food Process Engineering, Wageningen University & Research, PO Box 17, 6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
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49
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Wang Z, Tian B, Boom R, van der Goot AJ. Air bubbles in calcium caseinate fibrous material enhances anisotropy. Food Hydrocoll 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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50
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