1
|
Yoo C, Bhattacharya S, See XY, Cunningham DW, Acosta-Calle S, Perri ST, West NM, Mason DC, Meade CD, Osborne CW, Turner PW, Kilgore RW, King J, Cowden JH, Grajeda JM, Miller AJM. Nickel-catalyzed ester carbonylation promoted by imidazole-derived carbenes and salts. Science 2023; 382:815-820. [PMID: 37972168 DOI: 10.1126/science.ade3179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Millions of tons of acetyl derivatives such as acetic acid and acetic anhydride are produced each year. These building blocks of chemical industry are elaborated into esters, amides, and eventually polymer materials, pharmaceuticals, and other consumer products. Most acetyls are produced industrially using homogeneous precious metal catalysts, principally rhodium and iridium complexes. We report here that abundant nickel can be paired with imidazole-derived carbenes or the corresponding salts to catalyze methyl ester carbonylation with turnover frequency (TOF) exceeding 150 hour-1 and turnover number (TON) exceeding 1600, benchmarks that invite comparisons to state-of-the-art rhodium-based systems and considerably surpass known triphenylphosphine-based nickel catalysts, which operate with TOF ~7 hour-1 and TON ~100 under the same conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Changho Yoo
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Shrabanti Bhattacharya
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Xin Yi See
- Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport, TN, USA
| | - Drew W Cunningham
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Sebastian Acosta-Calle
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jeff King
- Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport, TN, USA
| | | | | | - Alexander J M Miller
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
See XY, Chiang JH, Law LM, Osen R. High moisture extrusion of plant proteins: advances, challenges, and opportunities. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-22. [PMID: 37850862 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2268736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
High moisture extrusion is a widely used technology for producing fibrous meat analogues in an efficient and scalable manner. Extrusion of soy, wheat gluten, and pea is well-documented and related products are already available in the market. There has been growing interest to diversify the protein sources used for meat analogues due to concerns over food waste, monocropping and allergenicity. Optimizing the extrusion process for plant proteins (e.g., hemp, mung bean, fava bean) tends to be time consuming and relies on the operators' intuition and experience to control the process well. Simulating the extrusion process has been challenging so far due to the diverse inputs and configurations involved during extrusion. This review details the mechanism for fibrous structure formation and provides an overview of the extrusion parameters used for texturizing a broad range of plant protein sources. Referring to these data reduces the resources needed for optimizing the extrusion process for novel proteins and may be useful for future extrusion modeling efforts. The review also highlights potential challenges and opportunities for extruding plant proteins, which may help to accelerate the development and commercialization of related products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yi See
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Jie Hong Chiang
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Li Min Law
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Raffael Osen
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Elhalis H, See XY, Osen R, Chin XH, Chow Y. The potentials and challenges of using fermentation to improve the sensory quality of plant-based meat analogs. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1267227. [PMID: 37860141 PMCID: PMC10582269 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1267227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the advancements made in improving the quality of plant-based meat substitutes, more work needs to be done to match the texture, appearance, and flavor of real meat. This review aims to cover the sensory quality constraints of plant-based meat analogs and provides fermentation as a sustainable approach to push these boundaries. Plant-based meat analogs have been observed to have weak and soft textural quality, poor mouth feel, an unstable color, and unpleasant and beany flavors in some cases, necessitating the search for efficient novel technologies. A wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, as well as fungi like Fusarium venenatum and Neurospora intermedia, have improved the product texture to mimic fibrous meat structures. Additionally, the chewiness and hardness of the resulting meat analogs have been further improved through the use of Bacillus subtilis. However, excessive fermentation may result in a decrease in the final product's firmness and produce a slimy texture. Similarly, several microbial metabolites can mimic the color and flavor of meat, with some concerns. It appears that fermentation is a promising approach to modulating the sensory profiles of plant-derived meat ingredients without adverse consequences. In addition, the technology of starter cultures can be optimized and introduced as a new strategy to enhance the organoleptic properties of plant-based meat while still meeting the needs of an expanding and sustainable economy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hosam Elhalis
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Food Science and Technology, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Xin Yi See
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Raffael Osen
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xin Hui Chin
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yvonne Chow
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Elhalis H, See XY, Osen R, Chin XH, Chow Y. Significance of Fermentation in Plant-Based Meat Analogs: A Critical Review of Nutrition, and Safety-Related Aspects. Foods 2023; 12:3222. [PMID: 37685155 PMCID: PMC10486689 DOI: 10.3390/foods12173222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant-based meat analogs have been shown to cause less harm for both human health and the environment compared to real meat, especially processed meat. However, the intense pressure to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based meat alternatives has caused their nutritional and safety aspects to be overlooked. This paper reviews our current understanding of the nutrition and safety behind plant-based meat alternatives, proposing fermentation as a potential way of overcoming limitations in these aspects. Plant protein blends, fortification, and preservatives have been the main methods for enhancing the nutritional content and stability of plant-based meat alternatives, but concerns that include safety, nutrient deficiencies, low digestibility, high allergenicity, and high costs have been raised in their use. Fermentation with microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Neurospora intermedia, and Rhizopus oryzae improves digestibility and reduces allergenicity and antinutritive factors more effectively. At the same time, microbial metabolites can boost the final product's safety, nutrition, and sensory quality, although some concerns regarding their toxicity remain. Designing a single starter culture or microbial consortium for plant-based meat alternatives can be a novel solution for advancing the health benefits of the final product while still fulfilling the demands of an expanding and sustainable economy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yvonne Chow
- Singapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology Innovation (SIFBI), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 31 Biopolis Way, Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore; (H.E.); (X.Y.S.); (R.O.); (X.H.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chiang CH, Wang SS, Chang YC, Chiang CH, Chen CY, Chen YJ, See XY, Peng CY, Hsia YP, Chiang CH, Peng CM. The Effect of Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors on Outcomes of Patients Treated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: a Retrospective Cohort Study. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2023; 35:446-453. [PMID: 36894383 DOI: 10.1016/j.clon.2023.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASi) are associated with improved survival outcomes in patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), but the data on the response to treatment and tumour-based endpoints across different tumour types are unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS We carried out a retrospective study at two tertiary referral centres in Taiwan. All adult patients treated with ICIs between January 2015 and December 2021 were included. The primary outcome was overall survival and the secondary outcomes were progression-free survival (PFS) and clinical benefit rates. RESULTS In total, 734 patients were enrolled in our study, of which 171 were RAASi users and 563 were non-users. Compared with non-users, RAASi users had a longer median overall survival [26.8 (interquartile range 11.3-not reached) versus 15.2 (interquartile range 5.1-58.4) months, P < 0.001] and PFS [12.2 (interquartile range 3.9-34.5) versus 5.0 (interquartile range 2.2-15.2) months, P < 0.001]. In univariate Cox proportional hazard analyses, the use of RAASi was associated with a 40% reduction in the risk of mortality [hazard ratio 0.58 (95% confidence interval 0.44-0.76), P < 0.001] and disease progression [hazard ratio 0.62 (95% confidence interval 0.50-0.77), P < 0.001]. The association remained significant after adjusting for underlying comorbidities and cancer therapy in multivariate Cox analyses. A similar trend was observed for PFS. Furthermore, RAASi users experienced a greater clinical benefit rate than non-users (69% versus 57%, P = 0.006). Importantly, the use of RAASi before ICI initiation was not associated with improved overall survival and PFS. RAASi were not associated with an increased risk of adverse events. CONCLUSION The use of RAASi is associated with improved survival outcomes, treatment response and tumour-based endpoints in patients undergoing immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C-H Chiang
- Department of Medicine, Mount Auburn Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - S-S Wang
- Da Vinci Minimally Invasive Surgery Center, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Y-C Chang
- Da Vinci Minimally Invasive Surgery Center, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - C-H Chiang
- Department of Medical Education, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - C-Y Chen
- Department of Medical Education, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Y-J Chen
- Department of Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - X Y See
- Department of Medicine, Unity Hospital, Rochester Regional Health, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - C-Y Peng
- Department of Medicine, Danbury Hospital, Danbury, CT, USA
| | - Y P Hsia
- Department of Family Medicine, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, New Taipei City, Taiwan.
| | - C-H Chiang
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of General Division, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - C-M Peng
- Da Vinci Minimally Invasive Surgery Center, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nobbs JD, Sugiarto S, See XY, Cheong CB, Aitipamula S, Stubbs LP, van Meurs M. Tetramethylphosphinane as a new secondary phosphine synthon. Commun Chem 2023; 6:85. [PMID: 37120598 PMCID: PMC10148838 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-023-00876-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Secondary phosphines are important building blocks in organic chemistry as their reactive P-H bond enables construction of more elaborate molecules. In particular, they can be used to construct tertiary phosphines that have widespread applications as organocatalysts, and as ligands in metal-complex catalysis. We report here a practical synthesis of the bulky secondary phosphine synthon 2,2,6,6-tetramethylphosphinane (TMPhos). Its nitrogen analogue tetramethylpiperidine, known for over a century, is used as a base in organic chemistry. We obtained TMPhos on a multigram scale from an inexpensive air-stable precursor, ammonium hypophosphite. TMPhos is also a close structural relative of di-tert-butylphosphine, a key component of many important catalysts. Herein we also describe the synthesis of key derivatives of TMPhos, with potential applications ranging from CO2 conversion to cross-coupling and beyond. The availability of a new core phosphine building block opens up a diverse array of opportunities in catalysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James D Nobbs
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Sigit Sugiarto
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Xin Yi See
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Choon Boon Cheong
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Srinivasulu Aitipamula
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Ludger P Stubbs
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore
| | - Martin van Meurs
- Institute of Sustainability for Chemicals, Energy and Environment (ISCE2), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, Singapore, 627833, Republic of Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
See XY, Forny L, Dupas-Langlet M, Meunier V, Zhou W. More reasons to add less salt – NaCl's unfavourable impact on glass transition and moisture sorption of amorphous maltose-NaCl blends. J FOOD ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
8
|
See XY, Wen X, Wheeler TA, Klein CK, Goodpaster JD, Reiner BR, Tonks IA. Iterative Supervised Principal Component Analysis Driven Ligand Design for Regioselective Ti-Catalyzed Pyrrole Synthesis. ACS Catal 2020; 10:13504-13517. [PMID: 34327040 PMCID: PMC8318334 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c03939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The rational design of catalysts remains a challenging endeavor within the broader chemical community owing to the myriad variables that can affect key bond-forming events. Designing selective catalysts for any reaction requires an efficient strategy for discovering predictive structure-activity relationships. Herein, we describe the use of iterative supervised principal component analysis (ISPCA) in de novo catalyst design. The regioselective synthesis of 2,5-dimethyl-1,3,4-triphenyl-1H-pyrrole (C) via a Ti-catalyzed formal [2 + 2 +1] cycloaddition of phenylpropyne and azobenzene was targeted as a proof of principle. The initial reaction conditions led to an unselective mixture of all possible pyrrole regioisomers. ISPCA was conducted on a training set of catalysts, and their performance was regressed against the scores from the top three principal components. Component loadings from this PCA space and k-means clustering were used to inform the design of new test catalysts. The selectivity of a prospective test set was predicted in silico using the ISPCA model, and optimal candidates were synthesized and tested experimentally. This data-driven predictive-modeling workflow was iterated, and after only three generations the catalytic selectivity was improved from 0.5 (statistical mixture of products) to over 11 (>90% C) by incorporating 2,6-dimethyl-4-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridine as a ligand. The origin of catalyst selectivity was probed by examining ISPCA variable loadings in combination with DFT modeling, revealing that ligand lability plays an important role in selectivity. A parallel catalyst search using multivariate linear regression (MLR), a popular approach in catalysis informatics, was also conducted in order to compare these strategies in a hypothetical catalyst scouting campaign. ISPCA appears to be more robust and predictive than MLR when sparse training sets are used that are representative of the data available during the early search for an optimal catalyst. The successful development of a highly selective catalyst without resorting to long, stochastic screening processes demonstrates the inherent power of ISPCA in de novo catalyst design and should motivate the general use of ISPCA in reaction development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yi See
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xuelan Wen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - T Alexander Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Channing K Klein
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jason D Goodpaster
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Benjamin R Reiner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ian A Tonks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Chiu HC, See XY, Tonks IA. Dative Directing Group Effects in Ti-Catalyzed [2+2+1] Pyrrole Synthesis: Chemo- and Regioselective Alkyne Heterocoupling. ACS Catal 2019; 9:216-223. [PMID: 31768294 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b04669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transient dative substrate-Ti interactions have been found to play a key role in controlling the regioselectivity of alkyne insertion and [2+2] cycloaddition in Ti-catalyzed [2+2+1] pyrrole synthesis and Ti-catalyzed alkyne hydroamination. TMS-protected alkynes with pendent Lewis basic groups can invert the regioselectivity of TMS-protected alkyne insertion, leading to the selective formation of highly substituted 3-TMS pyrroles. The competency of various potential directing groups was investigated, and it was found that the directing-group effect can be tuned by modifying the catalyst Lewis acidity, the directing-group basicity, or the directing-group tether length. Dative directing-group effects are unexplored with Ti catalysts, and this study demonstrates the potential power of dative substrate-Ti interactions in tuning selectivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Chun Chiu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota−Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xin Yi See
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota−Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ian A. Tonks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota−Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Desnoyer AN, See XY, Tonks IA. Diverse Reactivity of Diazatitanacyclohexenes: Coupling Reactions of 2 H-Azirines Mediated by Titanium(II). Organometallics 2018; 37:4327-4331. [PMID: 31768086 DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.8b00522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
2H-Azirines are versatile coupling partners for the synthesis of N-heterocycles. Herein, we present our studies on the reactivity of Cp2Ti(BTMSA) (1; BTMSA = bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene) with a variety of azirines. In all the cases examined, the initial organometallic products formed are diazatitanacyclohexenes, presumably formed via oxidative addition of Ti(II) into the C-N bond of the azirine to form an azatitanacyclobutene intermediate, followed by C═N insertion of a second equivalent of azirine into the Ti-C bond to form the observed products. Diazatitanacyclohexene 3, bearing phenyl substituents and derived from 2,3-diphenyl-2H-azirine, fragments to form an azabutadiene and nitrile, which is shown to be catalytic in the presence of excess 2,3-diphenyl-2H-azirine. H-substituted complex 8, derived from 3-phenyl-2H-azirine, decomposes via protonolysis of the Cp ligands. In contrast, the methyl-substituted diazatitanacyclohexene 10, derived from 2-methyl-3-phenyl-2H-azirine, is thermally robust. Attempts to trap the putative azatitanacyclobutene intermediate with an alkyne were unsuccessful, resulting instead in the formation of titanacyclopentadiene (12) from coupling of alkyne with BTMSA. Initial reactivity studies found that 10 could be protonolyzed with AcOH to form mixtures of pyrrole and aziridine products, whereas reacting 10 with MeOH results solely in the formation of 2,4-dimethyl-3,5-diphenyl-1H-pyrrole.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Addison N Desnoyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Xin Yi See
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ian A Tonks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Low-valent early transition metals are often intrinsically highly reactive as a result of their strong propensity toward oxidation to more stable high-valent states. Harnessing these highly reducing complexes for productive reactivity is potentially powerful for C-C bond construction, organic reductions, small-molecule activation and many other reactions that offer orthogonal chemoselectivity and/or regioselectivity patterns to processes promoted by late transition metals. Recent years have seen many exciting new applications of low-valent metals through building new catalytic and/or multicomponent reaction manifolds out of classical reactivity patterns. In this Review, we survey new methods that employ early transition metals and invoke low-valent precursors or intermediates in order to identify common themes and strategies in synthesis and catalysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evan P Beaumier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Adam J Pearce
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Xin Yi See
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Ian A Tonks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Pearce AJ, See XY, Tonks IA. Oxidative nitrene transfer from azides to alkynes via Ti(ii)/Ti(iv) redox catalysis: formal [2+2+1] synthesis of pyrroles. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:6891-6894. [PMID: 29796510 PMCID: PMC6008247 DOI: 10.1039/c8cc02623h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Catalytic oxidative nitrene transfer from azides with the early transition metals is rare, and has not been observed without the support of redox noninnocent spectator ligands. Here, we report the formal [2+2+1] coupling of azides and alkynes via TiII/TiIV redox catalysis from simple Ti halide imido precatalysts. These reactions yield polysubstituted N-alkyl pyrroles, including N-benzyl protected pyrroles and rare examples of very electron rich pentaalkyl pyrroles. Mechanistic analysis reveals that [2+2+1] reactions with bulky azides have different mechanistic features from previously-reported reactions using azobenzene as a nitrene source.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Pearce
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota - Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
See XY, Beaumier EP, Davis-Gilbert ZW, Dunn PL, Larsen JA, Pearce AJ, Wheeler TA, Tonks IA. Generation of Ti II Alkyne Trimerization Catalysts in the Absence of Strong Metal Reductants. Organometallics 2017; 36:1383-1390. [PMID: 28690352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.7b00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Low-valent TiII species have typically been synthesized by the reaction of TiIV halides with strong metal reductants. Herein we report that TiII species can be generated simply by reacting TiIV imido complexes with 2 equiv of alkyne, yielding a metallacycle that can reductively eliminate pyrrole while liberating TiII. In order to probe the generality of this process, TiII-catalyzed alkyne trimerization reactions were carried out with a diverse range of TiIV precatalysts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yi See
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Evan P Beaumier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Zachary W Davis-Gilbert
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Peter L Dunn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jacob A Larsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Adam J Pearce
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - T Alex Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ian A Tonks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| |
Collapse
|