Design and characterization of mangiferin nanoparticles for oral delivery

Application of atomic force microscopy in the characterization of fruits and vegetables and associated substances toward improvement in quality, preservation, and processing: nanoscale structure and mechanics perspectives

Fruits and vegetables are essential horticultural crops for humans. The quality of fruits and vegetables is critical in determining their nutritional value and edibility, which are decisive to their commercial value. Besides, it is also important to understand the changes in key substances involved in the preservation and processing of fruits and vegetables. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), a powerful technique for investigating biological surfaces, has been widely used to characterize the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing from the perspective of nanoscale structure and mechanics. This review summarizes the applications of AFM to investigate the texture, appearance, and nutrients of fruits and vegetables based on structural imaging and force measurements. Additionally, the review highlights the application of AFM in characterizing the morphological and mechanical properties of nanomaterials involved in preserving and processing fruits and vegetables, including films and coatings for preservation, bioactive compounds for processing purposes, nanofiltration membrane for concentration, and nanoencapsulation for delivery of bioactive compounds. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of AFM for characterizing the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing are examined, followed by a discussion on the prospects of AFM in this field.

Mangiferin: A comprehensive review on its extraction, purification and uses in food systems

With the target of fabricating healthier products, food manufacturing companies look for natural-based nutraceuticals that can potentially improve the physicochemical properties of food systems while being nutritive to the consumer and providing additional health benefits (biological activities). In this regard, Mangiferin joins all these requirements as a potential nutraceutical, which is typically contained in Mangifera indica products and its by-products. Unfortunately, knowing the complex chemical composition of Mango and its by-products, the extraction and purification of Mangiferin remains a challenge. Therefore, this comprehensive review revises the main strategies proposed by scientists for the extraction and purification of Mangiferin. Importantly, this review identifies that there is no report reviewing and criticizing the literature in this field so far. Our attention has been targeted on the timely findings on the primary extraction techniques and the relevant insights into isolation and purification. Our discussion has emphasized the advantages and limitations of the proposed strategies, including solvents, extracting conditions and key interactions with the target xanthone. Additionally, we report the current research gaps in the field after analyzing the literature, as well as some examples of functional food products containing Mangiferin.

Preparation and evaluation of antidiabetic activity of mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles

This study aimed to develop and optimize mangiferin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (MG-SLNs) using the microemulsion technique and ultrasonication. The MG-SLNs were composed of Labrafil M 2130 CS, MG, ethanol, Tween 80, and water. The optimized MG-SLNs exhibited a particle size of 138.37 ± 3.39 nm, polydispersity index of 0.247 ± 0.023, entrapment efficiency of 84.37 ± 2.43 %, and zeta potential of 18.87 ± 2.42 mV. Drug release studies showed a two-fold increase in the release of MG from SLNs compared to the solution. Confocal images indicated deeper permeation of MG-SLNs, highlighting their potential. Molecular docking confirmed mangiferin's inhibitory activity against α-amylase, consistent with previous findings. In vitro studies showed that MG-SLNs inhibited α-amylase activity by 55.43 ± 6.11 %, α-glucosidase activity by 68.76 ± 3.14 %, and exhibited promising antidiabetic activities. In a rat model, MG-SLNs significantly and sustainably reduced blood glucose levels for up to 12 h. Total cholesterol and triglycerides decreased, while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased. Both MG-SOL and MG-SLNs reduced SGOT and SGPT levels, with MG-SLNs showing a more significant reduction in SGOT compared to MG-SOL. Overall, the biochemical results indicated that both formulations improved diabetes-associated alterations. In conclusion, the study suggests that loading MG in SLNs using the newly developed approach could be an efficient oral treatment for diabetes, offering sustained blood glucose reduction and positive effects on lipid profiles and liver enzymes.

Nano-delivery Systems and Therapeutic Applications of Phytodrug Mangiferin

In order to cure a range of ailments, scientists have investigated a number of bioactive antioxidant compounds produced from natural sources. Mangiferin, a C-glycosyl xanthone-structured yellow polyphenol, is abundant in mangoes and other dietary sources. In-depth examinations found that it is effective in the treatment of a variety of disorders due to its antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, antigenotoxic, antiatherogenic, radioprotective, nephroprotective, antihyperlipidemic, and antidiabetic properties. However, it is recognised that mangiferin's poor bioavailability, volatility, and limited solubility restrict its therapeutic usefulness. Over time, effective solutions to these problems have arisen in the shape of effective delivery methods. The current articles present a summary of the several researches that have updated Mangiferin's biopharmaceutical characteristics. Additionally, strategies for enhancing the bioavailability, stability, and solubility of this phytodrug have been discussed. This review provides detailed information on the development of innovative Mangiferin delivery methods such as nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, niosomes, microspheres, metal nanoparticles, and complexation, as well as its therapeutic applications in a variety of sectors. This article provides effective guidance for researchers who desire to work on the formulation and development of an effective delivery method for improved magniferin therapeutic effectiveness.

Potential of electro-sprayed purified mangiferin nanoparticles for anti-aging cosmetic applications

The fabrication of mangiferin nanoparticles using an electrospraying technique is a new and promising method for developing nanoparticles with higher efficiency and safety. This study aimed to fabricate mangiferin nanoparticles (MNPs) using cellulose acetate (CA) as a polymer at various parameters using electrospraying. Commercial mangiferin (CM) was purified from 88.46 to 95.71% by a recrystallization method to improve its purity and biological activities and remove any residue. The properties of recrystallized mangiferin (RM) were characterized using DSC, FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and HPLC. Then its biological activity and proteomics were determined. Proteomics analysis of RM showed that up-regulated proteins were involved in more biological processes than CM. MNPs were fabricated by varying the electrospraying parameters including voltage, the distance between the needle-tip-collector and flow rate. Skin permeation, release and irritation were also evaluated. The results revealed that the average particle size of the MNPs ranged between 295.47 ± 5.58 and 448.87 ± 3.00 nm, and had a smooth spherical morphology in SEM images. The MNPs also showed good potential in antioxidant and anti-aging properties. The encapsulation efficiency of MNPs was determined to be 85.31%. From skin permeation studies of CM, RM, and MNPs, the mangiferin content was found in the stratum corneum and dermis skin layers. Moreover, the MNPs solution had 23.68 ± 0.27% and 11.98 ± 0.13% of mangiferin in the stratum corneum and viable epidermis and dermis, respectively. Additionally, the irritation test by HET-CAM was mild and safe. Therefore, MNPs produced by electrospraying are a promising delivery system for cosmetic/cosmeceutical applications.

Taste masking and stability improvement of Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng) by nanoencapsulation using chitosan and gelatin

In this study, red ginseng extract (RGE)-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by ionic gelation between chitosan (CS) and gelatin (Gel), and the physical characteristics of the RGE-loaded CS-Gel NPs (RGE-CS/Gel NPs), including particle size and polydispersity index (PDI), using different ratios of CS and Gel were examined. The particle size and PDI were 398.1 ± 41.3 nm and 0.433 ± 0.033, respectively for the optimal ratio of CS (0.075 mg/mL) and Gel (0.05 mg/mL). In vitro taste masking test and in vivo sensory evaluation using 10 panelists demonstrated that the CS/Gel NPs significantly reduced the bitter taste of RGE. Additionally, the CS/Gel NPs improved the thermal and acid stabilities, which were almost 6 and 8 times higher than those in the free RGE (p < 0.05), respectively. Likewise, our findings revealed that the RGE-CS/Gel NPs effectively maintain their inhibitory function against platelet aggregation (76.30 %) in an acidic environment. Therefore, the CS/Gel NPs can be used as a potential delivery system to mask the bitterness and improve the stability of RGE, which may enhance its application as a more palatable functional food ingredient with high anti-platelet activity.

Nanocrystals of Mangiferin Using Design Expert: Preparation, Characterization, and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Making nanoscale drug carriers could boost the bioavailability of medications that are slightly water soluble. One of the most promising approaches for enhancing the chemical stability and bioavailability of a variety of therapeutic medicines is liquid nanocrystal technology. This study aimed to prepare nanocrystals of mangiferin for sustained drug delivery and enhance the pharmacokinetic profile of the drug. The fractional factorial design (FFD) was used via a selection of independent and dependent variables. The selected factors were the concentration of mangiferin (A), hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) (B), pluronic acid (C), tween 80 (D), and the ratio of antisolvent to solvent (E). The selected responses were the particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. The nanocrystals were further evaluated for mangiferin release, release kinetics, Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), particle size, zeta potential, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The stability studies of developed nanocrystals were performed for 6 months and pharmacokinetics on albino rabbits. The value of entrapment efficiencies ranged from 23.98% to 86.23%. The percentage release of mangiferin varied from 62.45 to 99.02%. FTIR and DSC studies showed the stability of mangiferin in the nanocrystals. The particle size of the optimized formulation was almost 100 nm and -12 mV the value of the zeta potential. The results of stability studies showed that the nanocrystals of mangiferin were stable for a period of six months. The peak plasma concentration of mangiferin from nanocrystals and suspension of mangiferin were 412 and 367 ng/mL, respectively. The value of AUC0-t of nanocrystals and suspension of mangiferin was 23,567.45 ± 10.876 and 18,976.12 ± 9.765 µg×h/mL, respectively, indicating that the nanocrystals of mangiferin showed greater availability of mangiferin compared to the suspension of the formulation. The developed nanocrystals showed a good release pattern of mangiferin, better stability studies, and enhanced the pharmacokinetics of the drug.

Mangiferin: the miraculous xanthone with diverse pharmacological properties

Mangiferin (1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy-2-[3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl) oxan-2-yl] xanthen-9-one) is a bioactive component derived primarily from the mango tree. Belonging to the Xanthone family, its structure allows it to engage with a variety of pharmacological targets. The symmetric linked core of xanthones has a heterogeneous biogenetic background. The carbon atoms are designated in a biochemical order, which reveals the reason of ring A (C1-C4) being referred to as acetate originated, and ring B (C5-C8) is referred to as shikimate originated. The antibacterial, hypocholesterolemic, antiallergic, cardiotonic, antidiabetic, anti-neoplastic, neuroprotective, antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties have all been demonstrated for the secondary metabolite. This study assessed and explained the important medical properties of mangiferin available in published literature, as well as its natural source, biosynthesis, absorption and bioavailability; multiple administration routes; metabolism; nanotechnology for enhanced efficacy of mangiferin and its toxicity, to aid the anticipated on-going potential of mangiferin as a novel diagnostic treatment.

Inhibition of Peroxidation Potential and Protein Oxidative Damage by Metal Mangiferin Complexes

Background: Metal coordination complexes of polyphenolic compounds have been claimed to have better antioxidant and protection against protein oxidative damage effects than the isolated ligands. Whereas flavonoids have been extensively studied, xanthones such as mangiferin are lacking extensive research. Methods: Cu (II), Zn (II), and Se (IV) mangiferin complexes were synthesized with different stoichiometric ratios. Products were isolated by preparative chromatography and subjected to spectral analysis by FT-IR, HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-ESI-MS. The inhibition effects on peroxidation potential and protein oxidative damage were determined for all the metal–MF complexes. Results: Eight metal–MF complexes were isolated. Cu (II)–MF complexes did not improve MF antioxidant/protective effects; Zn (II) complexes (stoichiometric ratio 1:2) antioxidant/protective effects had no significant differences to MF; Zn (II)– and Se (IV)–MF complexes (stoichiometric ratio 1:3) showed the best inhibition effects on peroxidation potential (49.06% and 32.08%, respectively), and on the protection against protein oxidative damage (14.49% and 20.81%, respectively). Conclusions: The antioxidant/protective effects of Se (IV)– and Zn (II)–MF coordination complexes were significantly improved as compared to isolated MF, when the reaction between the metal salt and MF was performed with a stoichiometric ratio 1:3.

Mangiferin: a review of dietary sources, absorption, metabolism, bioavailability, and safety

Mangiferin is a potential candidate for use in nutraceutical and functional food applications due to its numerous bioactivities. However, the low bioavailability of mangiferin is a major limitation for establishing efficacy for use. This review describes current information on known food sources and factors that influence mangiferin contents, absorption, and metabolism features, and recent progress that has come from research efforts to increase the bioavailability of mangiferin. We also list patents that targeted to enhance mangiferin bioavailability. Mangifera indica L. is the major dietary source for mangiferin, a xanthone that varies widely in different parts of the plant and is influenced by many factors that involve plant propagation and post-harvest processing. Mangiferin absorption occurs mostly in the small intestine by passive diffusion with varying absorption capacities in different segments of the gastrointestinal tract. Recent research has led to the development of novel technologies to encapsulate mangiferin in nano/microparticle carrier systems as well as generate mangiferin derivatives to improve solubility and bioavailability. Preclinical studies reported that mangiferin < 2000 mg/kg is generally nontoxic. The safety and the increase in bioavailability are key limiting factors for developing successful applications for mangiferin as a nutritional dietary supplement or nutraceutical.

Nanoencapsulation of Promising Bioactive Compounds to Improve Their Absorption, Stability, Functionality and the Appearance of the Final Food Products

The design of functional foods has grown recently as an answer to rising consumers' concerns and demands for natural, nutritional and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation is a technique based on enclosing a bioactive compound (BAC) in liquid, solid or gaseous states within a matrix or inert material for preserving the coated substance (food or flavor molecules/ingredients). Nanoencapsulation can improve stability of BACs, improving the regulation of their release at physiologically active sites. Regarding materials for food and nutraceutical applications, the most used are carbohydrate-, protein- or lipid-based alternatives such as chitosan, peptide-chitosan and β-lactoglobulin nanoparticles (NPs) or emulsion biopolymer complexes. On the other hand, the main BACs used in foods for health promoting, including antioxidants, antimicrobials, vitamins, probiotics and prebiotics and others (minerals, enzymes and flavoring compounds). Nanotechnology can also play notable role in the development of programmable food, an original futuristic concept promising the consumers to obtain high quality food of desired nutritive and sensory characteristics.

Cashew apple pectin as a carrier matrix for mangiferin: Physicochemical characterization, in vitro release and biological evaluation in human neutrophils

In this work, cashew apple pectin (CP) of the species Anacardium occidentale L. was used as an encapsulation matrix for hydrophobic drugs. The model drug chosen was mangiferin (Mf), a glycosylated C-xanthone which has antioxidant properties but low solubility in aqueous medium. CP (1-100 μg mL^-1) was not toxic to human neutrophils and also did not significantly interfere with the pro-inflammatory mechanism of these cells in the concentration range of 12.5 and 100 μg mL^-1. The results are promising because they show that pectin encapsulated mangiferin after spray drying presented an efficiency of 82.02%. The results obtained in the dissolution test, simulating the release of mangiferin in the gastrointestinal tract (pH 1.2, 4.6 and 6.8) and using Franz diffusion cells (pH 7.4), showed that cashew pectin may be a promising vehicle in prolonged drug delivery systems for both oral and dermal applications.

The dual effect of natural organic matter on the two-step internalization process of Au@Sio2 in freshwater

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in aquatic ecosystems reshapes the surface of nanoparticles (NPs) greatly. Understanding how these changes influence the bioavailability of NPs is critical for accurately predicting the ecological risks of NPs. A quantitative model based on the two-step internalization process enabled the differentiation between the adhesion ability of NPs to membranes and the internalization capacity. Using protozoa Tetrahymena thermophila as the test organism, fluorescein isothiocyanate-modified silica NPs (FITC-SiO₂) and silica-coated gold NPs (Au@SiO₂) were prepared to validate the model and study the influence of DOM on uptake. DOM reduced the ability of Au@SiO₂ to adhere onto cell membranes and the inhibitory effect of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and β-lactoglobulin was higher due to their higher molecular weights and the weaker interaction. Moreover, DOM increased the internalization capacity. 80% Au@SiO₂ was internalized in the presence of humic acid (HA), over 90% Au@SiO₂ was internalized in the presence of the two proteins, whereas only 60% were internalized by the control group. Next, the specific recognition of the cell internalization in the presence of DOM was confirmed. We concluded that the traditional "accumulation" may misestimate the true biological effect caused by NPs coated with DOM. NPs coated with highly bioavailable DOM pose a greater risk to aquatic ecosystems because they are more likely to be internalized by living organisms.

Plant-Based Antidiabetic Nanoformulations: The Emerging Paradigm for Effective Therapy

Diabetes mellitus is a life-threatening metabolic syndrome. Over the past few decades, the incidence of diabetes has climbed exponentially. Several therapeutic approaches have been undertaken, but the occurrence and risk still remain unabated. Several plant-derived small molecules have been proposed to be effective against diabetes and associated vascular complications via acting on several therapeutic targets. In addition, the biocompatibility of these phytochemicals increasingly enhances the interest of exploiting them as therapeutic negotiators. However, poor pharmacokinetic and biopharmaceutical attributes of these phytochemicals largely restrict their clinical usefulness as therapeutic agents. Several pharmaceutical attempts have been undertaken to enhance their compliance and therapeutic efficacy. In this regard, the application of nanotechnology has been proven to be the best approach to improve the compliance and clinical efficacy by overturning the pharmacokinetic and biopharmaceutical obstacles associated with the plant-derived antidiabetic agents. This review gives a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the nanoformulations of phytochemicals in the management of diabetes and associated complications. The effects of nanosizing on pharmacokinetic, biopharmaceutical and therapeutic profiles of plant-derived small molecules, such as curcumin, resveratrol, naringenin, quercetin, apigenin, baicalin, luteolin, rosmarinic acid, berberine, gymnemic acid, emodin, scutellarin, catechins, thymoquinone, ferulic acid, stevioside, and others have been discussed comprehensively in this review.

A Single Dose of The Mango Leaf Extract Zynamite® in Combination with Quercetin Enhances Peak Power Output During Repeated Sprint Exercise in Men and Women

The mango leaf extract rich in mangiferin Zynamite® improves exercise performance when combined with luteolin or quercetin ingested at least 48 h prior to exercise. To determine whether a single dose of Zynamite® administered 1 h before exercise increases repeated-sprint performance, 20 men and 20 women who were physically active were randomly assigned to three treatments following a double-blind cross-over counterbalanced design. Treatment A, 140 mg of Zynamite®, 140 mg of quercetin, 147.7 mg of maltodextrin, and 420 mg of sunflower lecithin; Treatment B, 140 mg of Zynamite®, 140 mg of quercetin, and 2126 mg of maltodextrin and Treatment C, 2548 mg of maltodextrin (placebo). Subjects performed three Wingate tests interspaced by 4 min and a final 15 s sprint after ischemia. Treatments A and B improved peak power output during the first three Wingates by 2.8% and 3.8%, respectively (treatment x sprint interaction, p = 0.01). Vastus Lateralis oxygenation (NIRS) was reduced, indicating higher O2 extraction (treatment × sprint interaction, p = 0.01). Improved O2 extraction was observed in the sprints after ischemia (p = 0.008; placebo vs. mean of treatments A and B). Blood lactate concentration was 5.9% lower after the ingestion of Zynamite® with quercetin in men (treatment by sex interaction, p = 0.049). There was a higher Vastus Lateralis O2 extraction during 60 s ischemia with polyphenols (treatment effect, p = 0.03), due to the greater muscle VO2 in men (p = 0.001). In conclusion, a single dose of Zynamite® combined with quercetin one hour before exercise improves repeated-sprint performance and muscle O2 extraction and mitochondrial O2. consumption during ischemia. No advantage was obtained from the addition of phospholipids.

Improving Antioxidant Activity of β-Lactoglobulin by Nature-Inspired Conjugation with Gentisic Acid

Dietary phenolic compounds display strong antioxidant capabilities but face limited practical applications as a result of their poor biocompatibility (high immune resistance). Some food proteins possess mild antioxidant capabilities but are often not sufficient to maintain a reactive oxidative species balance. In this study, we overcome these barriers by covalently conjugating a natural phenolic antioxidant, gentisic acid (GA), onto an antioxidant protein, β-lactoglobulin (βLG). Upon optimization of conjugation conditions, we confirm the formation of βLG-GA conjugates with mass spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and ultraviolet-visible absorption. Surface charge analysis revealed a saturation molar ratio of 150:1 (GA/βLG), while far-ultraviolet circular dichroism revealed substantial changes in the protein secondary structure upon conjugation. The antioxidant capability of resultant conjugates was probed by monitoring the decay of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical content via time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, which suggested two possible pathways to scavenge radicals, i.e., the antioxidant GA on the protein surface and the protein conformational change that exposes more antioxidant amino acids. To our best knowledge, this work is the first report on the fabrication of a dual-effect antioxidant biopolymer using a nature-inspired template via covalent linking with the antioxidant mechanism probed. Our findings are essential for opening a new route to design functional materials with enhanced antioxidant activity and biocompatibility.