Anticancer activity and potential mechanisms of 1C, a ginseng saponin derivative, on prostate cancer cells

Pharmacodynamic Evaluation and Mechanism of Ginseng Polysaccharide against Nephrotoxicity Induced by Hexavalent Chromium

Hexavalent chromium is a common pollutant in the environment. Long-term exposure to hexavalent chromium can cause damage to multiple organs. The kidney is one of the main organs that metabolizes heavy metal toxicity, and the accumulation of Cr (VI) in the body can lead to serious damage to kidney function. Studies have shown that ginseng polysaccharides have the function of preventing cisplatin-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammatory response, and apoptosis in renal cells, but their efficacy and mechanisms against hexavalent chromium-induced nephrotoxicity need to be explored. The aim of this study was to explore the efficacy and mechanism of ginseng polysaccharide against hexavalent chromium-induced nephrotoxicity. The results of pharmacodynamic experiments showed that ginseng polysaccharide could significantly reduce the kidney index, urea nitrogen (BUN), and serum creatinine (Cre) values of K2Cr2O7-treated mice. The results of mechanistic experiments showed that ginseng polysaccharides could alleviate oxidative stress, apoptosis, and biofilm damage in renal tissues caused by Cr (VI). Lipidomic correlation analysis showed that ginseng polysaccharides could protect the organism by regulating the expression of differential lipids. This study opens new avenues for the development of alternative strategies for the prevention of kidney injury caused by hexavalent chromium.

Amino Acid Derivatives of Ginsenoside AD-2 Induce HepG2 Cell Apoptosis by Affecting the Cytoskeleton

AD-2 (20(R)-dammarane-3β, 12β, 20, 25-tetrol, 25-OH-PPD) was structurally modified to introduce additional amino groups, which can better exert its anti-tumor effects in MCF-7, A549, LoVo, HCT-116, HT -29, and U-87 cell lines. We investigated the cellular activity of 15 different AD-2 amino acid derivatives on HepG2 cells and the possible mechanism of action of the superior derivative 6b. An MTT assay was used to detect the cytotoxicity of the derivatives. Western blotting was used to study the signaling pathways. Flow cytometry was used to detect cell apoptosis and ghost pen peptide staining was used to identify the changes in the cytoskeleton. The AD-2 amino acid derivatives have a better cytotoxic effect on the HepG2 cells than AD-2, which may be achieved by promoting the apoptosis of HepG2 cells and influencing the cytoskeleton. The derivative 6b shows obvious anti-HepG2 cells activity through affecting the expression of apoptotic proteins such as MDM2, P-p53, Bcl-2, Bax, Caspase 3, Cleaved Caspase 3, Caspase 8, and NSD2. According to the above findings, the amino acid derivatives of AD-2 may be developed as HepG2 cytotoxic therapeutic drugs.

Anticancer therapeutic effect of ginsenosides through mediating reactive oxygen species

Dysregulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and ROS-regulated pathways in cancer cells leads to abnormal accumulation of reactive oxygen species, displaying a double-edged role in cancer progression, either supporting transformation/proliferation and stimulating tumorigenesis or inducing cell death. Cancer cells can accommodate reactive oxygen species by regulating them at levels that allow the activation of pro-cancer signaling pathways without inducing cell death via modulation of the antioxidant defense system. Therefore, targeting reactive oxygen species is a promising approach for cancer treatment. Ginsenosides, their derivatives, and related drug carriers are well-positioned to modulate multiple signaling pathways by regulating oxidative stress-mediated cellular and molecular targets to induce apoptosis; regulate cell cycle arrest and autophagy, invasion, and metastasis; and enhance the sensitivity of drug-resistant cells to chemotherapeutic agents of different cancers depending on the type, level, and source of reactive oxygen species, and the type and stage of the cancer. Our review focuses on the pro- and anticancer effects of reactive oxygen species, and summarizes the mechanisms and recent advances in different ginsenosides that bring about anticancer effects by targeting reactive oxygen species, providing new ideas for designing further anticancer studies or conducting more preclinical and clinical studies.

Effects of saponins from Chinese herbal medicines on signal transduction pathways in cancer: A review

Cancer poses a serious threat to human health, and the search for safe and effective drugs for its treatment has aroused interest and become a long-term goal. Traditional Chinese herbal medicine (TCM), an ancient science with unique anti-cancer advantages, has achieved outstanding results in long-term clinical practice. Accumulating evidence shows that saponins are key bioactive components in TCM and have great research and development applications for their significant role in the treatment of cancer. Saponins are a class of glycosides comprising nonpolar triterpenes or sterols attached to hydrophilic oligosaccharide groups that exert antitumor effects by targeting the NF-κB, PI3Ks-Akt-mTOR, MAPK, Wnt-β-catenin, JAK-STAT3, APMK, p53, and EGFR signaling pathways. Presently, few advances have been made in physiological and pathological studies on the effect of saponins on signal transduction pathways involved in cancer treatment. This paper reviews the phytochemistry and extraction methods of saponins of TCM and their effects on signal transduction pathways in cancer. It aims to provide theoretical support for in-depth studies on the anticancer effects of saponins.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel protopanoxadiol derivatives based PROTACs technology for the treatment of lung cancer

Protopanoxadiol is a key active ingredient derived from Panax ginseng that is well-known to exhibit anti-tumor activity. Previous research focused on the natural protopanaxadiol derivative AD-1 has demonstrated that it possesses broad spectrum anti-tumor activities in vitro and in vivo. However, its limited activity, selectivity, and cell permeability have impeded its therapeutic application. Herein, a series of novel AD-1 derivatives were designed and synthesized based on proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology by linking AD-1 at the C-3 and C-12 positions with pomalidomide through linkers of alkyl chain of differing lengths to achieve the goal of improving the efficacy of the parent compound. Among these synthesized PROTACs, the representative compound A05 exhibited the most potent anti-proliferative activity against A549 cells. Furthermore, mechanistic studies revealed that compound A05 was able to suppress MDM2 expression, disrupt interactions between p53 and MDM2 and readily induce apoptotic death via the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Moreover, the in vivo assays revealed that compound A05 exhibited both anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic activities in the zebrafish tumor xenograft model with A549 cells. Together, our findings suggest that AD-1 based PROTACs associated with the degradation of MDM2 may have promising effects for the treatment of lung cancer and this work provide a foundation for future efforts to develop novel anti-tumor agents from natural products.

Network Pharmacology Experiments Show That Emodin Can Exert a Protective Effect on MCAO Rats by Regulating Hif-1α/VEGF-A Signaling

Modern pharmacological studies have shown that emodin, the main effective component of rhubarb, has good anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, but its pharmacodynamic mechanism remains unclear yet. This study aims to elucidate the multitarget action mechanism of emodin in ischemic stroke through network pharmacology and in vivo experiments. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control (normal saline), sham (normal saline), model (normal saline), and emodin groups (n = 9 per group). Emodin was administered at 40 mg/kg/d for 3 consecutive days. The rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 h, followed by reperfusion for 24 h to establish the cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. To search for relevant studies in databases, emodin, ischemic stroke, and stroke were used as keywords. Subsequently, protein-protein interaction networks and complex disease target networks were established, and an enrichment analysis and molecular docking of core targets were performed. Gene expression was detected through western blotting and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Localization and expression of proteins were detected through immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, the neurological function, 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining, levels of brain tissue inflammatory factors, the role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and relevant signaling pathways were assessed in vivo. The molecular docking of core targets revealed that the docking between vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and emodin was the most efficient. Emodin pretreatment decreased the neurological score from 2.875 to 1.125. Moreover, emodin inhibited the degradation of occludin and claudin-5 caused by matrix metalloprotein kinase (MMP)-2/MMP-9, thereby protecting the BBB. Additionally, related proteins such as hypoxia-inducible factor-1α/VEGF-A and nuclear factor kappa B were down-regulated. Thus, emodin may play a protective role during cerebral ischemia reperfusion through mediation of the Hif-1α/VEGF-A signaling pathway to inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors.

Regulation of reactive oxygen species by phytochemicals for the management of cancer and diabetes

Cancer and diabetes mellitus are served as typical life-threatening diseases with common risk factors. Developing therapeutic measures in cancers and diabetes have aroused attention for a long time. However, the problems with conventional treatments are in challenge, including side effects, economic burdens, and patient compliance. It is essential to secure safe and efficient therapeutic methods to overcome these issues. As an alternative method, antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties of phytochemicals from edible plants have come to the fore. Phytochemicals are naturally occurring compounds, considered promising agent applicable in treatment of various diseases with beneficial effects. Either antioxidative or pro-oxidative activity of various phytochemicals were found to contribute to regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis, which can exert preventive and therapeutic effects against cancer and diabetes. In this article, the antioxidant or pro-oxidant effects and underlying mechanisms of flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins in cancer or diabetic models demonstrated by the recent studies are summarized.

Korean red ginseng attenuates Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced inflammatory response in endometrial cancer cells and an endometriosis mouse model

Background

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most common endocrine disrupting chemical used as a plasticizer. DEHP is associated with the development of endometrium-related diseases through the induction of inflammation. The major therapeutic approaches against endometrial cancer and endometriosis involve the suppression of inflammatory response. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of KRG on DEHP-induced inflammatory response in endometrial cancer Ishikawa cells and a mouse model of endometriosis.

Methods

RNA-sequencing was performed and analyzed on DEHP-treated Ishikawa cells in the presence and absence of KRG. The effects of KRG on DEHP-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA levels in Ishikawa cells were determined by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, the effects of KRG on the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) pathway, COX-2, and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 after DEHP treatment of Ishikawa cells were evaluated by western blotting. In the mouse model, the severity of endometriosis induced by DEHP and changes in immunohistochemistry were used to assess the protective effect of KRG.

Results

According to the RNA-sequencing data, DEHP-induced inflammatory response-related gene expression was downregulated by KRG. Moreover, KRG significantly inhibited DEHP-induced ERK1/2/NF-κB/COX-2 levels in Ishikawa cells. In the mouse model, KRG administration significantly inhibited ectopic endometriosis growth after DEHP-induced endometriosis.

Conclusions

Overall, these results suggest that KRG may be a promising lead for the treatment of endometrial cancer and endometriosis via suppression of the inflammatory response.

Korean Red Ginseng suppresses bisphenol A-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and cellular migration of A549 human lung cancer cell through inhibition of reactive oxygen species

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects. We have previously reported that the endocrine-disrupting compound bisphenol A (BPA)-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) via nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and promoted the migration of A549. Here, in this study, we assessed the protective effect of KRG on the BPA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of COX-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in A549 cells.

METHODS

The effects of KRG on the upregulation of ROS production and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression by BPA were evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACs) analysis, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Antimigration ability by KRG was evaluated by migration assay in A549 cells.

RESULTS

KRG significantly suppressed the BPA-induced COX-2, the activity of NF-κB, the production of ROS, and the migration of A549 cells. These effects led to the downregulation of the expression of MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that KRG exerts an antiinflammatory effect on BPA-treated A549 cells via the suppression of ROS and downregulation of NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression which leads to a decrease in cellular migration and MMP-9 expression. These results provide a new possible therapeutic application of KRG to protect BPA-induced possible inflammatory disorders.

Calvatianone, a Sterol Possessing a 6/5/6/5-Fused Ring System with a Contracted Tetrahydrofuran B-Ring, from the Fruiting Bodies of Calvatia nipponica

Calvatia nipponica is an extremely rare mushroom with a limited number of studies on its chemical components and biological activities published. Here we report the isolation of a novel sterol, calvatianone (1), possessing a 6/5/6/5-fused ring system with a contracted tetrahydrofuran B-ring, and four known steroids (2-5) from the fruiting bodies of C. nipponica. The structure of calvatianone including its absolute configuration was determined by NMR spectroscopic analyses, HR-ESIMS, gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shift calculations, and ECD calculations. Ergosterol peroxide (3) and cyathisterol (4) suppressed the cell viability increase induced by 17β-estradiol in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, suggesting a possible approach for these compounds to serve as ERα antagonists.

Chelerythrine suppresses proliferation and metastasis of human prostate cancer cells via modulating MMP/TIMP/NF-κB system

Chelerythrine is a natural benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid found in many herbs and displays a wide range of antitumor activities. Here, the present study tested their effects on prostate cancer cells. The addition of chelerythrine can significantly inhibit the proliferation of androgen-independent prostate cancer DU145 and PC-3 cells at the concentration of 5 and 10 μM, but not on androgen-dependent prostate cancer LNCaP cells as well as normal prostate epithelial cell line PrEC cells. Wound migration and transwell invasion assay showed the similar inhibitory effect of chelerythrine on the migration and invasion of DU145 and PC-3 cells in the same condition. Western blot analysis further confirmed that chelerythrine not only dramatically decreased MMP-2, MMP-9, and uPA protein expression, but also augmented the expression of their endogenous inhibitors (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) and plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAI-1 and PAI-2) in both cancer cells. Meanwhile, NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors were all suppressed as evidenced by the decline of p-p65, c-Fos, and c-Jun protein expression in both cells. Taken together, these findings suggested that chelerythrine could reduce the metastasis of androgen-independent prostate cancer cells via modulation of MMP/TIMP system and inactivation of NF-κB pathway.

Pharmacological potential of ginseng and its major component ginsenosides

Ginseng has been used as a traditional herb in Asian countries for thousands of years. It contains a large number of active ingredients including steroidal saponins, protopanaxadiols, and protopanaxatriols, collectively known as ginsenosides. In the last few decades, the antioxidative and anticancer effects of ginseng, in addition to its effects on improving immunity, energy and sexuality, and combating cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, and neurological diseases, have been studied in both basic and clinical research. Ginseng could be a valuable resource for future drug development; however, further higher quality evidence is required. Moreover, ginseng may have drug interactions although the available evidence suggests it is a relatively safe product. This article reviews the bioactive compounds, global distribution, and therapeutic potential of plants in the genus Panax.

Absolute Configuration and Corrected NMR Assignment of 17-Hydroxycyclooctatin, a Fused 5-8-5 Tricyclic Diterpene

The absolute configuration and corrected NMR assignment of 17-hydroxycyclooctatin isolated from Streptomyces sp. M56 recovered from a nest of South African Macrotermes natalensis termites are reported. 17-Hydroxycyclooctatin is a unique tricyclic diterpene (C₂₀) consisting of a fused 5-8-5 ring system, and in this study, its structure was unambiguously determined by a combination of HR-ESIMS and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic experiments to produce corrected NMR assignments. The absolute configuration of 17-hydroxycyclooctatin is reported for the first time in the current study using chemical reactions and quantum chemical ECD calculations. The corrected NMR assignments were verified using a gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shifts calculation, followed by DP4 probability. To understand the pharmacological properties of 17-hydroxycyclooctatin, a network pharmacological approach and molecular docking analyses were used, which also predicted its effects on human breast cancer cell lines. Cytotoxicity and antiestrogenic activity of 17-hydroxycyclooctatin were determined, and it was found this compound may be an ERα antagonist.

Trichothecene and tremulane sesquiterpenes from a hallucinogenic mushroom Gymnopilus junonius and their cytotoxicity

Gymnopilus junonius (Fr.) P. D. Orton (Cortinariaceae) is a hallucinogenic mushroom, a well-known poisonous mushroom that is widely known as "big laughter mushroom" because it causes excessive laughter in those who consume it. Chemical investigation of G. junonius fruiting bodies was performed, resulting in the isolation and structural identification of three sesquiterpenes (1-3), including a new trichothecene sesquiterpene (2) and a new tremulane sesquiterpene (3). Compound 1 was identified from G. junonius for the first time. The chemical structures of the new compounds were established by detailed analysis of 1D and 2D (¹H-¹H correlated spectroscopy [COSY], heteronuclear single quantum coherence [HSQC], and heteronuclear multiple-bond coherence [HMBC]) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra, and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). In particular, the absolute configurations of compounds 2 and 3 were unambiguously determined by quantum chemical electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. The isolated compounds (1-3) were evaluated for their cytotoxic effects on human lung and prostate cancer cell lines where trichothecene sesquiterpenes (1 and 2) showed remarkable cytotoxicity similar to that of the control drug, i.e., doxorubicin. Our findings provide experimental evidence suggesting the potential anti-cancer effects of trichothecene sesquiterpenes from a poisonous mushroom.

Chemical constituents of the root bark of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica and their potential biological activities

The root bark of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Ulmaceae), commonly known as yugeunpi, has been used as a traditional Korean medicine for the treatment of gastroenteric and inflammatory disorders. As part of continuing projects to discover bioactive natural products from traditional medicinal plants with pharmacological potential, phytochemical investigation of the root bark of this plant was carried out. This led to the successful isolation of a new chromane derivative (1) and 22 known compounds: catechin derivatives (2-5), megastigmane glycoside (6), dihydrochalcone glycosides (7 and 8), flavanone glycosides (9 and 10), coumarins (11 and 12), lignan derivatives (13-17), and phenolic compounds (18-23). The structure of the new compound (1) was determined with 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and HR-ESIMS, and its absolute configurations were achieved by chemical reactions and the gauge-including atomic orbital (GIAO) NMR chemical shifts calculations. All the isolated compounds were evaluated for their potential biological activities including neuro-protective, anti-neuroinflammatory, and anti-Helicobacter pylori activities. Among the isolates, compounds 1, 8, and 20 displayed stronger potency by causing a greater increase in the production and the activity of nerve growth factor (NGF) in C6 glioma cells (147.04 ± 4.87, 206.27 ± 6.70, and 143.70 ± 0.88%, respectively), whereas compounds 11, 14, and 19 inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine microglial cells (IC₅₀ of 18.72, 12.31, and, 21.40 µM, respectively). In addition, compounds 1, 11, 18, and 20 showed anti-H. pylori activity with MIC values of 25 or 50 µM against two strains of H. pylori 51 and 43504. These findings provide scientific evidence that supports the traditional usage of U. davidiana var. japonica root bark in the treatment of gastroenteric and inflammatory disorders.

Betulinic Acid Suppresses Ovarian Cancer Cell Proliferation through Induction of Apoptosis

Ovarian cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths worldwide in women, and the most malignant cancer among the different gynecological cancers. In this study, we explored potentially anticancer compounds from Cornus walteri (Cornaceae), the MeOH extract of which has been reported to show considerable cytotoxicity against several cancer cell lines. Phytochemical investigations of the MeOH extract of the stem and stem bark of C. walteri by extensive application of chromatographic techniques resulted in the isolation of 14 compounds (1–14). The isolated compounds were evaluated for inhibitory effects on the viability of A2780 human ovarian carcinoma cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated. An 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was employed to assess the anticancer effects of compounds 1–14 on A2780 cells, which showed that compound 11 (betulinic acid) reduced the viability of these cells in a concentration-dependent manner and had an half maximal (50%) inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 44.47 μM at 24 h. Nuclear staining and image-based cytometric assay were carried out to detect the induction of apoptosis by betulinic acid. Betulinic acid significantly increased the condensation of nuclei and the percentage of apoptotic cells in a concentration-dependent manner in A2780 cells. Western blot analysis was performed to investigate the underlying mechanism of apoptosis. The results indicated that the expression levels of cleaved caspase-8, -3, -9, and Bax were increased in A2780 cells treated with betulinic acid, whereas those of Bcl-2 were decreased. Thus, we provide the experimental evidence that betulinic acid can induce apoptosis in A2780 cells through both mitochondria-dependent and -independent pathways and suggest the potential use of betulinic acid in the development of novel chemotherapeutics for ovarian cancer therapy.

Exogenous regucalcin negatively regulates the progression of cervical adenocarcinoma

Cervical adenocarcinoma (CA) is a type of cervical cancer, and in previous decades its incidence has steadily increased. The upregulation of regucalcin (RGN) in various tumor cell types inhibits the progression of cancer. To understand the role of RGN in CA, RGN expression in human cervical cancer compared with normal tissues was analyzed using The Cancer Genome Atlas database (TCGA). Subsequently, transfection of lentivirus-mediated RGN into HeLa cells was conducted to study its function in tumor proliferation and metastasis. The expression of RGN and proteins associated with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) were determined using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Cell migration and invasion were evaluated using Transwell assays. Furthermore, cell proliferation, colony formation and cell cycle were assessed using the Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Lentivirus-mediated RGN effectively upregulated RGN expression, inhibited cell proliferation, retarded cellular invasion and promoted cell cycle arrest at the G₂/M phase in HeLa cells. In addition, the expression levels of β-catenin, p-glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3, MMP-7 and MMP-9 were effectively decreased, whilst those of E-cadherin and GSK-3β were increased. The results suggest that RGN may be an inhibitory factor in tumorigenesis, and its mechanism of inhibiting tumor proliferation and metastasis may be associated with Wnt/β-catenin signaling and EMT.