Synergistic anticancer effects of timosaponin AIII and ginsenosides in MG63 human osteosarcoma cells

Advances in antitumor activity and mechanism of natural steroidal saponins: A review of advances, challenges, and future prospects

BACKGROUND

Cancer, the second leading cause of death worldwide following cardiovascular diseases, presents a formidable challenge in clinical settings due to the extensive toxic side effects associated with primary chemotherapy drugs employed for cancer treatment. Furthermore, the emergence of drug resistance against specific chemotherapeutic agents has further complicated the situation. Consequently, there exists an urgent imperative to investigate novel anticancer drugs. Steroidal saponins, a class of natural compounds, have demonstrated notable antitumor efficacy. Nonetheless, their translation into clinical applications has remained unrealized thus far. In light of this, we conducted a comprehensive systematic review elucidating the antitumor activity, underlying mechanisms, and inherent limitations of steroidal saponins. Additionally, we propose a series of strategic approaches and recommendations to augment the antitumor potential of steroidal saponin compounds, thereby offering prospective insights for their eventual clinical implementation.

PURPOSE

This review summarizes steroidal saponins' antitumor activity, mechanisms, and limitations.

METHODS

The data included in this review are sourced from authoritative databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and others.

RESULTS

A comprehensive summary of over 40 steroidal saponin compounds with proven antitumor activity, including their applicable tumor types and structural characteristics, has been compiled. These steroidal saponins can be primarily classified into five categories: spirostanol, isospirostanol, furostanol, steroidal alkaloids, and cholestanol. The isospirostanol and cholestanol saponins are found to have more potent antitumor activity. The primary antitumor mechanisms of these saponins include tumor cell apoptosis, autophagy induction, inhibition of tumor migration, overcoming drug resistance, and cell cycle arrest. However, steroidal saponins have limitations, such as higher cytotoxicity and lower bioavailability. Furthermore, strategies to address these drawbacks have been proposed.

CONCLUSION

In summary, isospirostanol and cholestanol steroidal saponins demonstrate notable antitumor activity and different structural categories of steroidal saponins exhibit variations in their antitumor signaling pathways. However, the clinical application of steroidal saponins in cancer treatment still faces limitations, and further research and development are necessary to advance their potential in tumor therapy.

Anti-tumor effect and mechanisms of Timosaponin AIII across diverse cancer progression

Timosaponin AIII (TAIII), a steroidal saponin derived from Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge, has gained attention for its versatile therapeutic properties. While well-established for its anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, and anticoagulant properties, emerging research highlights its potent anti-tumor capabilities. This review synthesizes recent findings on the intricate mechanisms and diverse functions of TAIII in cancer therapy, elucidating its impact on various tumor cells, encompassing the effects of TAIII on critical aspects of cancer progression, including metastasis, apoptosis, and autophagy. Additionally, the shared features of TAIII-induced anti-tumor activities, the factors contributing to the multifaceted anti-cancer activities of TAIII, and an exploration of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the regulation of multiple anti-tumor pathways by TAIII are discussed. Furthermore, the detailed regulation of signaling pathways is delineated and tailored to specific cancer types, providing a comprehensive overview of the potential development of TAIII as a promising anti-tumor agent.

The Potential Role of Timosaponin-AIII in Cancer Prevention and Treatment

Cancer, as one of the leading causes of death worldwide, has challenged current chemotherapy drugs. Considering that treatments are expensive, alongside the resistance of tumor cells to anticancer drugs, the development of alternative medicines is necessary. Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge, a recognized and well-known medicinal plant for more than two thousand years, has demonstrated its effectiveness against cancer. Timosaponin-AIII (TSAIII), as a bioactive steroid saponin isolated from A. asphodeloides, has shown multiple pharmacological activities and has been developed as an anticancer agent. However, the molecular mechanisms of TSAIII in protecting against cancer development are still unclear. In this review article, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the anticancer effects of TSAIII, including proliferation inhibition, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, autophagy mediation, migration and invasion suppression, anti-angiogenesis, anti-inflammation, and antioxidant effects. The pharmacokinetic profiles of TSAII are also discussed. TSAIII exhibits efficacy against cancer development. However, hydrophobicity and low bioavailability may limit the application of TSAIII. Effective delivery systems, particularly those with tissue/cell-targeted properties, can also significantly improve the anticancer effects of TSAIII.

Signal Pathways and microRNAs in Osteosarcoma Growth and the Dual Role of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Oncogenesis

The major challenges in Osteosarcoma (OS) therapy are its heterogeneity and drug resistance. The development of new therapeutic approaches to overcome the major growth mechanisms of OS is urgently needed. The search for specific molecular targets and promising innovative approaches in OS therapy, including drug delivery methods, is an urgent problem. Modern regenerative medicine focuses on harnessing the potential of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) because they have low immunogenicity. MSCs are important cells that have received considerable attention in cancer research. Currently, new cell-based methods for using MSCs in medicine are being actively investigated and tested, especially as carriers for chemotherapeutics, nanoparticles, and photosensitizers. However, despite the inexhaustible regenerative potential and known anticancer properties of MSCs, they may trigger the development and progression of bone tumors. A better understanding of the complex cellular and molecular mechanisms of OS pathogenesis is essential to identify novel molecular effectors involved in oncogenesis. The current review focuses on signaling pathways and miRNAs involved in the development of OS and describes the role of MSCs in oncogenesis and their potential for antitumor cell-based therapy.

A review of the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and quality of Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizomes of Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge., belonging to the family Liliaceae, are named 'Zhi-mu' according to traditional Chinese medicine theory. It is a medicinal plant that has long been used as a tonic agent in various ethnomedicinal systems in East Asia, especially in China, and also for treating arthralgia, hematochezia, tidal fever, night sweats, cough, dry mouth and tongue, hemoptysis, etc. THE ARM OF THE REVIEW: The review aims to provide a systematic overview of botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and quality control of Anemarrhena asphodeloides and to explore the future therapeutic potential and scientific potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed on Anemarrhena asphodeloides using scientific databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, CNKI, Elsevier, SpringerLink, ACS publications, ancient books, Doctoral and master's Theses. Collected data from different sources was comprehensively summarised for botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and quality control of Anemarrhena asphodeloides.

RESULTS

A comprehensive analysis of the literature as mentioned above confirmed that the ethnomedical uses of Anemarrhena asphodeloides had a history of thousands of years in eastern Asian countries. Two hundred sixty-nine compounds have been identified from Anemarrhena asphodeloides, including steroidal saponins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, steroids, organic acids, polysaccharides, benzophenones and other ingredients. Studies have shown that the extracts and compounds from Anemarrhena asphodeloides have extensive pharmacological activities, such as nervous system activity, antitumour, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiosteoporotic, antiallergic, antiplatelet aggregation, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-ageing, hair growth promoting, preventing cell damage, etc. Evaluating the quality and toxicity of Anemarrhena asphodeloides is essential to confirm its safe use in humans.

CONCLUSION

Anemarrhena asphodeloides is widely used in traditional medicine and have diverse chemical constituents with obvious biological activities. Nevertheless, more studies should be carried out in animals and humans to evaluate the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in its biological activity and confirm its safe use.

Timosaponin AIII Suppresses RAP1 Signaling Pathway to Enhance the Inhibitory Effect of Paclitaxel on Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Although PTX has been identified as an effective drug for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) therapy, it has serious side effects in the human body. Previous studies have shown that timosaponin AIII (TSAIII) can inhibit the malignant progression of NPC cells. This study investigated the active mechanism of the combination of TSAIII and paclitaxel (PTX) on NPC. Cellular viability, apoptosis, apoptotic factors, and RAP1 signaling regulators were detected in the PNC cells (CNE-1 and HNE-2) and the subcutaneous CNE-1 transplanted nude mice treated with PTX or/and TSAIII. The results showed that TSAIII notably strengthened the inhibitory effect of PTX on the proliferation of NPC cells CNE-1 and HNE-2; upregulated the expression of Bax B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)/Bcl-xL-associated death promoter (Bad), and Ras-associated protein1 (RAP1) GTPase activating protein (Rap1GAP); inhibited the level of Bcl-2, RAP1, and Ras guanine nucleotide releasing protein (RasGRP2); and significantly enhanced the promoting effect of PTX on apoptosis in the CNE-1 and HNE-2 cells. Besides, TSAIII strengthened the inhibitory effect of PTX on xenograft tumor in nude mice without adverse reactions. In conclusion, the combination administration of TSAIII and PTX had a significantly therapeutic effect on NPC and avoided the PTX's side effects, which may have acted as a new direction for the study of therapeutic approaches for NPC clinically.

Naturally occurring steroidal saponins as potential anticancer agents: Current developments and mechanisms of action

Cancer is claimed as a prevalent cause of mortality throughout the world. Conventional chemotherapy plays a pivotal role in the treatment of cancers, but the multidrug resistance has already become one of the major impediments for efficacious cancer therapy, creating a great demand for the development of novel anticancer drugs. Steroidal saponins, abundantly found in nature, possess extensive structural variability, and some naturally occurring steroidal saponins exhibited profound anticancer properties through a variety of pathways. Hence, naturally occurring steroidal saponins are powerful lead compounds/candidates in the development of novel therapeutic agents. This review article described the recent progress in naturally occurring steroidal saponins as potential anticancer agents, and the mechanisms of action were also discussed, covering articles published between 2017 and 2021.

TGF‑β inhibitor RepSox suppresses osteosarcoma via the JNK/Smad3 signaling pathway

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common malignant bone tumor and the long-term survival rates remain unsatisfactory. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has been revealed to play a crucial role in OS progression, and RepSox is an effective TGF-β inhibitor. In the present study, the effect of RepSox on the proliferation of the OS cell lines (HOS and 143B) was detected. The results revealed that RepSox effectively inhibited the proliferation of OS cells by inducing S-phase arrest and apoptosis. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of RepSox on cell migration and invasion was confirmed by wound-healing and Transwell assays. Furthermore, western blotting revealed that the protein levels of molecules associated with the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype, including E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Vimentin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9, were reduced by RepSox treatment. Concurrently, it was also revealed that the JNK and Smad3 signaling pathway was inhibited. Our in vivo findings using a xenograft model also revealed that RepSox markedly inhibited the growth of tumors. In general, our data demonstrated that RepSox suppressed OS proliferation, EMT and promoted apoptosis by inhibiting the JNK/Smad3 signaling pathway. Thus, RepSox may be a potential anti-OS drug.

Paving the Road Toward Exploiting the Therapeutic Effects of Ginsenosides: An Emphasis on Autophagy and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Programmed cell death processes such as apoptosis and autophagy strongly contribute to the onset and progression of cancer. Along with these lines, modulation of cell death mechanisms to combat cancer cells and elimination of resistance to apoptosis is of great interest. It appears that modulation of autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress with specific agents would be beneficial in the treatment of several disorders. Interestingly, it has been suggested that herbal natural products may be suitable candidates for the modulation of these processes due to few side effects and significant therapeutic potential. Ginsenosides are derivatives of ginseng and exert modulatory effects on the molecular mechanisms associated with autophagy and ER stress. Ginsenosides act as smart phytochemicals that confer their effects by up-regulating ATG proteins and converting LC3-I to -II, which results in maturation of autophagosomes. Not only do ginsenosides promote autophagy but they also possess protective and therapeutic properties due to their capacity to modulate ER stress and up- and down-regulate and/or dephosphorylate UPR transducers such as IRE1, PERK, and ATF6. Thus, it would appear that ginsenosides are promising agents to potentially restore tissue malfunction and possibly eliminate cancer.

Asparanin A inhibits cell migration and invasion in human endometrial cancer via Ras/ERK/MAPK pathway

Asparanin A (AA), a natural compound present in vegetables and medicinal herbs like Asparagus officinalis L., has been investigated extensively for its pharmacological attributes. So far, the effect of AA on endometrial cancer (EC) cell migration and invasion has not been explored. Herein, we elucidated the anti-metastasis mechanism of AA on Ishikawa cells based on miRNA-seq and mRNA-seq integrated analyses. AA treatment led to altered miRNAs expression in Ishikawa cells and inhibited the cell wound healing, cell migration and invasion. Gene Ontology and KEGG enrichment analyses showed that the target genes of different expression miRNAs were significantly enriched in Ras, Rap1 and MAPK signaling pathways. Further verification of these changes via qRT-PCR and Western blot assays in vitro and in vivo demonstrated that AA could suppress human EC cell migration and invasion through Ras/ERK/MAPK pathway. Furthermore, top two miRNAs (miR-6236-p5 and miR-12136_R+8) and top three target genes (KITLG, PDGFD, and NRAS) were identified as functional hub miRNAs and genes through miRNA-target gene network analysis. Our data presented a holistic approach to comprehend the anti-metastatic role of AA in EC after in vitro and in vivo analyses.

Natural tyrosine kinase inhibitors acting on the epidermal growth factor receptor: Their relevance for cancer therapy

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), also known as ErbB-1/HER-1, plays a key role in the regulation of the cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and survival. Since the constitutive activation or overexpression of EGFR is nearly found in various cancers, the applications focused on EGFR are the most widely used in the clinical level, including the therapeutic drugs of targeting EGFR, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs).Over the past decades, the compounds from natural sources have been a productive source of novel drugs, especially in both discovery and development of anti-tumor drugs by targeting the EGFR pathways as the TKIs. This work presents a review of the compounds from natural sources as potential EGFR-TKIs involved in the regulation of cancer. Moreover, high-throughput drug screening of EGFR-TKIs from the natural compounds has also been summarized.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Drives Stimulations of Timosaponin AIII-Induced Anticancer Effects in Human Osteosarcoma Cells

A ginsenoside Rg1 is an active compound extracted from the stem and/or root of ginseng. Rg1 has been known to affect various human organ systems including the immune, cardiovascular, and nervous systems with its pharmacological effects. Timosaponin AIII (TA3) is a type of spirostanol saponins that are the major compounds of Anemarrhena asphodeloides. TA3 exerts anticancer effects in various human cancers, and the effects include attenuations of cancer cell migration and induction of apoptosis. In this study, I report that Rg1 drives the stimulation of TA3-induced cytotoxic effects in MG63 human osteosarcoma cells. Rg1 stimulates TA3-induced apoptosis in MG63 cells via selective intensification of caspase-3 activation. Rg1 and TA3 synergistically induced antimetastatic effects such as attenuation of MG63 cell migration and inhibitions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9). Rg1 and TA3 synergistically suppressed JNK, p38, ERK, β-catenin, and CREB signaling, which are key regulators of cancer metastasis. Finally, the synergistic anticancer effects of Rg1 and TA3 were also observed in U2OS human osteosarcoma cells, and this may indicate that the synergy is not limited specifically to MG63 cells. The results presented here suggest that the combinatorial use of Rg1 and TA3 may be a promising way to develop an effective antiosteosarcoma agent.

Pharmacological Activity, Pharmacokinetics, and Toxicity of Timosaponin AIII, a Natural Product Isolated From Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge: A Review

Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge is a famous Chinese Materia Medica and has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for more than two thousand years. Steroidal saponins are important active components isolated from A. asphodeloides Bunge. Among which, the accumulation of numerous experimental studies involved in Timosaponin AIII (Timo AIII) draws our attention in the recent decades. In this review, we searched all the scientific literatures using the key word "timosaponin AIII" in the PubMed database update to March 2020. We comprehensively summarized the pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of Timo AIII. We found that Timo AIII presents multiple-pharmacological activities, such as anti-cancer, anti-neuronal disorders, anti-inflammation, anti-coagulant, and so on. And the anti-cancer effect of Timo AIII in various cancers, especially hepatocellular cancer and breast cancer, is supposed as its most potential activity. The anti-inflammatory activity of Timo AIII is also beneficial to many diseases. Moreover, VEGFR, X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), B-cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus integration site 1 (BMI1), thromboxane (Tx) A2 receptor, mTOR, NF-κB, COX-2, MMPs, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and so on are identified as the crucial pharmacological targets of Timo AIII. Furthermore, the hepatotoxicity of Timo AIII was most concerned, and the pharmacokinetics and toxicity of Timo AIII need further studies in diverse animal models. In conclusion, Timo AIII is potent as a compound or leading compound for further drug development while still needs in-depth studies.