Remarkable impact of amino acids on ginsenoside transformation from fresh ginseng to red ginseng

Changes in chemical components and hepatoprotective effect of red Panax notoginseng processed by aspartic acid impregnation treatment

BACKGROUND

Red Panax notoginseng (RPN) is one of the major processed products of P. notoginseng (PN), with more effective biological activities. However, the traditional processing method of RPN has some disadvantages, such as low conversion rate of ginsenosides and long processing time.

RESULTS

In this work, we developed a green, safe, and efficient approach for RPN processing by aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment. Our results showed that the optimized temperature, steaming time, and concentration of aspartic acid were 120 °C, 1 h, and 3% respectively. The original ginsenosides in PN treated by aspartic acid (Asp-PN) were completely converted to rare saponins at 120 °C within just 1 h. The concentration of the rare ginsenosides in Asp-PN was two times higher than that in untreated RPN. In addition, we examined the protective effect of RPN and Asp-PN on acetaminophen-induced liver injury in a mouse model. The results showed that Asp-PN has significantly more potent hepatoprotective action than the RPN. The hepatoprotection of Asp-PN in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity may be due to its anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment may provide an effective method to shorten the steaming time, improve the conversion rate of ginsenosides, and enhance hepatoprotective activity of RPN. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Therapeutic effect of notoginseng saponins before and after fermentation on blood deficiency rats

Notoginseng saponins (NS) are the active ingredients in Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen (PN). NS can be transformed depending on how the extract is processed. Fermentation has been shown to produce secondary ginsenosides with increased bioavailability. However, the therapeutic effect of fermented NS (FNS) requires further study. The present study compared the compositions and activities of FNS and NS in blood deficiency rats, which resembles the symptoms of anemia in modern medicine, induced by acetylphenylhydrazine and cyclophosphamide. A total of 32 rats were randomly divided into control, model, FNS and NS groups. A blood deficiency model was established and then treatment was orally administered for 21 days. The results of component analysis indicated that some saponins transformed during the fermentation process resulting in a decrease of notoginsenoside R1, and ginsenosides Rg1, Rb1 and Re, and an increase in ginsenosides Rd, Rh2, compound K, protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol. The animal results showed that both FNS and NS increased the number of white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells, hemoglobin, platelets and reticulocytes, and the levels of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), erythropoietin (EPO) and thrombopoietin (TPO), decreased the G0/G1 phase and increased G2/M phase, and decreased the apoptosis rate of bone marrow (BM) cells, which suggested a contribution to the recovery of hematopoietic function of the BM cells. FNS and NS increased the protein expression levels of the cytokines IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, TGF-β, IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α, and the mRNA expression levels of transcription factors GATA binding protein 3 and T-box expressed in T cell (T-bet). FNS and NS treatment also increased the number of CD4+ T cells, and decreased the enlargement of the rat spleen and thymus atrophy, which indicated a protective effect on the organs of the immune system. The results of the present study demonstrated that compared with NS, FNS showed an improved ability to increase the levels of WBCs, lymphocytes, GM-CSF, EPO, TPO, aspartate aminotransferase, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13 and TNF-α, and the mRNA expression levels of T-bet, and decrease alanine aminotransferase levels. The differences seen for FNS treatment could arise from their improved bioavailability compared with NS, due to the larger proportion of hydrophobic ginsenosides produced during fermentation.

Specific fractionation of ginsenosides based on activated carbon fibers and online fast screening of ginseng extract by mass spectrometry

Ginseng is beneficial in the prevention of many diseases and provides benefits for proper growth and development owing to the presence of various useful bioactive substances of diverse chemical heterogeneity (e.g., triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, volatile oils, and amino acids). As a result, understanding the therapeutic advantages of ginseng requires an in-depth compositional evaluation employing a simple and rapid analytical technique. In this work, three types of surface-activated carbon fibers (ACFs) were prepared by gas-phase oxidation, strong acid treatment, and Plasma treatment to obtain CO2-ACFs, acidified-ACFs, and plasma-ACFs, respectively. Three prepared ACFs were compared in terms of their physicochemical characterization (i.e., surface roughness and functional groups). A separation system was built using a column with modified ACFs, followed by mass spectrometry detection to investigate and determine substances of different polarities. Among the three columns, CO2-ACFs showed the optimum separation effect. 13 strong polar compounds (12 amino acids and1 oligosaccharide) and 15 lesser polar compounds (ginsenosides) were separated and identified successfully within 4 min in the ginseng sample. The data obtained by CO2-ACFs-TOF-MS/MS and UHPLC-TOF-MS/MS were compared. Our approach was found to be faster (4 min vs. 36 min) and greener, requiring much less solvent (1 mL vs. 10.8 mL), and power (0.06 vs. 0.6 kWh). The developed methodology can provide a faster, eco-friendly, and more reliable tool for the high-throughput screening of complex natural matrices and the simultaneous evaluation of several compounds in diverse samples.

Phytochemistry of Red Ginseng, a Steam-Processed Panax ginseng

Asian ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. There are two major types of ginseng roots: white ginseng and red ginseng, each with numerous preparations. White ginseng is prepared by air-drying fresh Asian ginseng roots after harvest. Red ginseng is prepared by steaming roots in controlled conditions using fresh or raw Asian ginseng. Red ginseng is commonly used in Asian countries due to its unique chemical profile, different therapeutic efficacy, and increased stability. Compared with the widespread research on white ginseng, the study of red ginseng is relatively limited. In this paper, after a botanical feature description, the structures of different types of constituents in red ginseng are systematically described, including naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from the steam processing. In red ginseng phytochemical studies, the number of published reports on ginsenosides is significantly higher than that for other constituents. Up to now, 57 ginsenosides have been isolated and characterized in red ginseng. The structural transformation pathways during steaming have been summarized. In comparison with white ginseng, red ginseng also contains other constituents, including polyacetylenes, Maillard reaction products, other types of glycosides, lignans, amino acids, fatty acids, and polysaccharides, which have also been presented. Appropriate analytical methods are necessary for differentiating between unprocessed white ginseng and processed red ginseng. Specific marker compounds and chemical profiles have been used to discriminate red ginseng from white ginseng and adulterated commercial products. Additionally, a brief phytochemical profile comparison has been made between white ginseng and black ginseng, and the latter is another type of processed ginseng prepared from white or red ginseng by steaming several times. In conclusion, to ensure the safe and effective use of red ginseng, phytochemical and analytical studies of its constituents are necessary and even crucial.

Comprehensive Investigation of Ginsenosides in the Steamed Panax quinquefolius with Different Processing Conditions Using LC-MS

Panax quinquefolius (PQ) has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine and functional food. Ginsenosides are the important functional components of PQ. The ginsenosides' diversity is deeply affected by the processing conditions. The ginsenosides in the steamed PQ have been not well-characterized yet because of the complexity of their structure. In the study, the comprehensive investigation of ginsenosides was performed on the steamed PQ with different steaming times and temperatures by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. Based on the molecular weight, retention time and characterized fragment ions, 175 ginsenosides were unambiguously identified or tentatively characterized, including 45 protopanaxatriol type, 49 protopanaxadiol type, 19 octillol type, 6 oleanolic acid type ginsenosides, and 56 other ginsenosides. Ten new ginsenosides and three new aglycones were discovered in the steamed PQ samples through searching the database of CAS SciFindern. Principal component analysis showed the significant influence on the chemical components of PQ through different processing conditions. The steaming temperature was found to promote the transformation of ginsenosides more than the steaming time. The protoginsenosides were found to transform into the rare ginsenosides by elimination reactions. The malonyl ginsenosides were degraded into acetyl ginsenosides, and then degraded into neutral ginsenosides. The sugar chain experienced degradation, with position changes and configuration inversions. Furthermore, 20 (S/R)-ginsenoside Rh1, Rh2, Rg2, and Rh12 were found to transform from the S-configuration to the R-configuration significantly. This study could present a comprehensive ginsenosides profile of PQ with different steaming conditions, and provide technical support for the development and utilization of PQ.

Anti-prostate cancer mechanism of black ginseng during the "nine steaming and nine sun-drying" process based on HPLC analysis combined with vector space network pharmacology

HPLC analysis determined six small-molecule organic acids, maltol, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), 17 ginsenosides, four oligosaccharides, and 20 amino acids in black ginseng samples with different processing times. Based on the content determination results, the differential ingredients in the processing of black ginseng were screened by multivariate statistical analysis. Network pharmacological methods obtained the core targets and pathways of the above ingredients against prostate cancer. Finally, the entropy weight method was used to assign values to the above ingredients, targets, and pathways, and the vector space network pharmacology method was established to study the anti-prostate cancer mechanism of black ginseng in the process of "nine steaming and nine sun-drying". Based on principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), fructose, glucose, dencichin, glutamate, ginsenoside 20 (S)-Rg3, 20 (R)-Rg3, 20 (S)-Rh2, Rg1, Re, and Rc were the main differential ingredients in various steaming and sun-drying cycle periods of black ginseng. The results of vector space network pharmacology showed that the main reason for the change in the anti-prostate cancer pathway of black ginseng with the number of steaming and sun-drying was the different regulatory ability of black ginseng on the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and chemical carcinogenesis-receptor activation pathway. It gave researchers a fresh perspective for exploring the anti-prostate cancer active components of black ginseng and the change in the mechanism of the effect of traditional Chinese medicine in processing.

Rare ginsenosides: A unique perspective of ginseng research

BACKGROUND

Rare ginsenosides (Rg3, Rh2, C-K, etc.) refer to a group of dammarane triterpenoids that exist in low natural abundance, mostly produced by deglycosylation or side chain modification via physicochemical processing or metabolic transformation in gut, and last but not least, exhibited potent biological activity comparing to the primary ginsenosides, which lead to a high concern in both the research and development of ginseng and ginsenoside-related nutraceutical and natural products. Nevertheless, a comprehensive review on these promising compounds is not available yet.

AIM OF REVIEW

In this review, recent advances of Rare ginsenosides (RGs) were summarized dealing with the structurally diverse characteristics, traditional usage, drug discovery situation, clinical application, pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, toxicity, the stereochemistry properties, and production strategies.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

A total of 144 RGs with diverse skeletons and bioactivities were isolated from Panax species. RGs acted as natural ligands on some specific receptors, such as bile acid receptors, steroid hormone receptors, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptors. The RGs showed promising bioactivities including immunoregulatory and adaptogen-like effect, anti-aging effect, anti-tumor effect, as well as their effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular system, central nervous system, obesity and diabetes, and interaction with gut microbiota. Clinical trials indicated the potential of RGs, while high quality data remains inadequate, and no obvious side effects was found. The stereochemistry properties induced by deglycosylation at C (20) were also addressed including pharmacodynamics behaviors, together with the state-of-art analytical strategies for the identification of saponin stereoisomers. Finally, the batch preparation of targeted RGs by designated strategies including heating or acid/ alkaline-assisted processes, and enzymatic biotransformation and biosynthesis were discussed. Hopefully, the present review can provide more clues for the extensive understanding and future in-depth research and development of RGs, originated from the worldwide well recognized ginseng plants.

Metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota

Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng are regarded to be functional ingredients for diverse pharmacological effects and orally administrated with very low absorption in the gastrointestinal tract to be metabolized by gut microbiota. However, in vivo metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides mediated by gut microbiota are not well-known. This study aimed to explore the metabolic profiles of ginsenosides in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota. Ginsenosides and metabolites were identified and relatively quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS). As a result, eighty-four metabolites were identified in the normal control rat feces, while only thirty intermediates were found with very low yields in the pseudo-germ-free (GF) group. Similarly, the main bioconversion pathways of ginsenosides in vivo were the same deglycosylation reaction mediated by gut microbiota in vitro. The findings demonstrated significant differences in metabolic profiles between the normal control and pseudo-GF rats, which implied gut microbiota played an important role in the metabolism of ginsenosides.

The Impact of Light Wavelength and Darkness on Metabolite Profiling of Korean Ginseng: Evaluating Its Anti-Cancer Potential against MCF-7 and BV-2 Cell Lines

Korean ginseng is a source of functional foods and medicines; however, its productivity is hindered by abiotic stress factors, such as light. This study investigated the impacts of darkness and different light wavelengths on the metabolomics and anti-cancer activity of ginseng extracts. Hydroponically-grown Korean ginseng was shifted to a light-emitting diodes (LEDs) chamber for blue-LED and darkness treatments, while white fluorescent (FL) light treatment was the control. MCF-7 breast cancer and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV-2 microglial cells were used to determine chemo-preventive and neuroprotective potential. Overall, 53 significant primary metabolites were detected in the treated samples. The levels of ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, and Re, as well as organic and amino acids, were significantly higher in the dark treatment, followed by blue-LED treatment and the FL control. The dark-treated ginseng extract significantly induced apoptotic signaling in MCF-7 cells and dose-dependently inhibited the NF-κB and MAP kinase pathways in LPS-induced BV-2 cells. Short-term dark treatment increased the content of Rd, Rc, Rb1, Rb2, and Re ginsenosides in ginseng extracts, which promoted apoptosis of MCF-7 cells and inhibition of the MAP kinase pathway in BV-2 microglial cells. These results indicate that the dark treatment might be effective in improving the pharmacological potential of ginseng.

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ion mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry profiling and unveiling the transformation of ginsenosides by the dual conditions of citric acid and high-pressure steaming

RATIONALE

Many methods have been reported for the production of rare ginsenosides, including heat treatment, acid hydrolysis, alkaline hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, and microbial transformation. However, the conversion of original ginsenosides to rare ginsenosides under the dual conditions of citric acid and high-pressure steam sterilization has rarely been reported.

METHODS

In this study, a method involving ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ion mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was developed for analysis of chemical transformation of protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type ginsenosides Rg₁ and Re, protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenoside Rb₁ , and total ginsenosides in the dual conditions of citric acid and high-pressure steam sterilization. An internal ginsenoside database containing 126 known ginsenosides and 18 ginsenoside reference compounds was established to identify the transformation products and explore possible transformation pathways and mechanisms.

RESULTS

A total of 54 ginsenosides have been preliminarily identified in the transformation products of PPD-type ginsenosides Rg₁ and Re, PPD-type ginsenoside Rb₁ , and total ginsenosides, and the possible transformation pathways were as follows: Rg₁ , Re → 20(S)-Rh₁₂ , 20(R)-Rh₁₂ ; Rg₁ , Re → 20(S)-Rh₁ , 20(R)-Rh₁  → Rk₃ , Rh₄ , Rh₅ ; Rb₁  → gypenoside LXXV; Rb₁  → 20(S)-Rg₃ , 20(R)-Rg₃  → Rk₁ , Rg₅ ; Re → 20(S)-Rg₂ , 20(R)-Rg₂  → 20(S)-Rf₂ , 20(R)-Rf₂ , Rg₄ , F₄ .

CONCLUSIONS

The results elucidated the possible transformation pathways and mechanisms of ginsenosides in the dual conditions of citric acid and high-pressure steam sterilization, which were helpful for revealing the mechanisms of ginsenosides and enhanced safety and quality control of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Meanwhile, a simple, efficient, and practical method was developed for the production of rare ginsenosides, which has the potential to produce diverse rare ginsenosides on an industrial scale.

Changes in Chemical Compositions and Antioxidant Activities from Fresh to Fermented Red Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng

This study investigated changes in nutrients (fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals), ginsenosides, and volatile flavors, and antioxidant activities during food processing of mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG) with the cocktail lactic acid bacteria. Fatty acid content increased, but the free amino acid content decreased, and minerals were practically unaffected during processing. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents and maillard reaction products increased markedly according to processing stage. The total ginsenosides levels increased from 31.25 mg/g (DMCG) to 32.36 mg/g (red MCG, RMCG) and then decreased (27.27 mg/g, at fermented RMCG) during processing. Particularly, the contents of F2 (0.31 → 1.02 → 2.27 mg/g), Rg3 (0.36 → 0.77 → 1.93 mg/g), and compound K (0.5 → 1.68 → 4.13 mg/g) of ginsenosides and β-panasinsene (17.28 → 22.69 → 31.61%), biocycloelemene (0.11 → 0.84 → 0.92%), δ-cadinene (0.39 → 0.5 → 0.94%), and alloaromadendrene (1.64 → 1.39 → 2.6%) of volatile flavor compounds increased during processing, along with to the antioxidant effects (such as DPPH, ABTS, and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities, and FRAP). This study may provide several choices for the use of ginseng in functional foods and functional cosmetics.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

Characteristics of Black Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mayer) Production Using Ginseng Stored at Low Temperature after Harvest

Ginseng processing often involves multiple drying and heat treatments. Ginseng is typically processed within one week of harvesting or is stored at low temperatures to prevent spoilage. Black ginseng (BG) is manufactured by repeating the heat treatment and drying process of ginseng several times. We compared the suitability of low-temperature stored ginseng (SG) and harvested ginseng (HG) as the components for black ginseng production. SG and HG were processed into black ginseng and the appearance change, free sugar content, and benzo[a]pyrene (BAP) content were observed. Appearance observations showed the SG to be suitable in terms of quality when heat-treated at a temperature of 95 ℃ or higher. The BAP content of the SG increased significantly as the steaming process was repeated. A maximum BAP concentration of 5.31 ± 1.12 μg/kg was measured in SG steamed from 2 to 5 times, making it unsuitable for processing into BG. SG and HG showed similar trends in the content of sucrose, fructose, and glucose during steaming. This study aimed to facilitate the proper choice of base material to improve the safety of black ginseng by limiting BAP production during processing.

Stem-leaves of Panax as a rich and sustainable source of less-polar ginsenosides: comparison of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, American ginseng and Panax notoginseng prepared by heating and acid treatment

Background

Ginsenosides, which have strong biological activities, can be divided into polar or less-polar ginsenosides.

Methods

This study evaluated the phytochemical diversity of the saponins in Panax ginseng (PG) root, American ginseng (AG) root, and Panax notoginseng (NG) root; the stem-leaves from Panax ginseng (SPG) root, American ginseng (SAG) root, and Panax notoginseng (SNG) root as well as the saponins obtained following heating and acidification [transformed Panax ginseng (TPG), transformed American ginseng (TAG), transformed Panax notoginseng (TNG), transformed stem-leaves from Panax ginseng (TSPG), transformed stem-leaves from American ginseng (TSAG), and transformed stem-leaves from Panax notoginseng (TSNG)]. The diversity was determined through the simultaneous quantification of the 16 major ginsenosides.

Results

The content of ginsenosides in NG was found to be higher than those in AG and PG, and the content in SPG was greater than those in SNG and SAG. After transformation, the contents of polar ginsenosides in the raw saponins decreased, and contents of less-polar compounds increased. TNG had the highest levels of ginsenosides, which is consistent with the transformation of ginseng root. The contents of saponins in the stem-leaves were higher than those in the roots. The transformation rate of SNG was higher than those of the other samples, and the loss ratios of total ginsenosides from NG (6%) and SNG (4%) were the lowest among the tested materials. In addition to the conversion temperature, time, and pH, the crude protein content also affects the conversion to rare saponins. The proteins in Panax notoginseng allowed the highest conversion rate.

Conclusion

Thus, the industrial preparation of less-polar ginsenosides from SNG is more efficient and cheaper.