Predicted concentrations of anticancer drugs in the aquatic environment: What should we monitor and where should we treat?

Modulating nanostructures with polyvinylpyrrolidone: Design and development of a porous, biocompatible, and pH-Stable core-shell magnetic microrobot for demonstrating drug absorption from wastewater

Increased antineoplastic drug concentrations in wastewater stem from ineffective treatment plants and increased usage. Although microrobots are promising for pollutant removal, they face hurdles in developing a superstructure with superior adsorption capabilities, biocompatibility, porosity, and pH stability. This study focused on adjusting the PVP concentration from 0.05 to 0.375 mM during synthesis to create a favorable CMOC structure for drug absorption. Lower PVP concentrations (0.05 mM) yielded a three-dimensional nanoflower structure of CaMoO4 and CuS nanostructures, whereas five-fold concentrations (0.25 mM) produced a porous structure with a dense CuS core encased in a transparent CaMoO4 shell. The magnetically movable and pH-stable COF@CMOC microrobot, achieved by attaching CMOC to cobalt ferrite (CoF) NPs, captured doxorubicin efficiently, with up to 57 % efficiency at 200 ng/mL concentration for 30 min, facilitated by electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding, and pore filling of DOX. The results demonstrated that DOX removal through magnetic motion showed superior performance, with an estimated improvement of 57% compared to stirring conditions (17 %). A prototype PDMS microchannel system was developed to study drug absorption and microrobot recovery. The CaMoO4 shell of the microrobots exhibited remarkable robustness, ensuring long-lasting functionality in harsh wastewater environments and improving biocompatibility while safeguarding the CuS core from degradation. Therefore, microrobots are a promising eco-friendly solution for drug extraction. These microrobots show promise for the selective removal of doxorubicin from contaminated wastewater.

Anticancer drugs impact the performance and prokaryotic microbiome of an aerobic granular sludge system operated in a sequential batch reactor

Increased concerns exist about the presence of anticancer drugs in wastewater. However, knowledge of the impacts of anticancer drugs on the performance of the system and microbial communities during wastewater treatment processes is limited. We examined the effect of three anticancer drugs commonly detected in influents of wastewater treatment plants applied at three different concentration levels on the performance, efficiency of anticancer drug removal, and prokaryotic microbiome in an aerobic granular sludge system (AGS) operated in a sequential batch reactor (SBR). We showed that an AGS can efficiently remove anticancer drugs, with removal rates in the range of 53-100% depending on the type of drug and concentration level. Anticancer drugs significantly decreased the abundance of total bacterial and archaeal communities, an effect that was linked to reduced nitrogen removal efficiency. Anticancer drugs also reduced the diversity, altered the prokaryotic community composition, reduced network complexity, and induced a decrease of a wide range of predicted bacterial functions. Specific bacterial taxa responsive to the addition of anticancer drugs with known roles in nitrification and denitrification were identified. This study shows anticancer drugs should be monitored in the future as they can induce changes in the performance and microbiome of wastewater treatment technologies.

Next-generation hybrid technologies for the treatment of pharmaceutical industry effluents

Water and industries are intangible units of the globe that are always set to meet the population's demand. The global population depends on one-third of freshwater increasing the demand. The increase in population along with urbanization has polluted the fresh water resources. The pharmaceutical industry is marked as an emerging contaminant of water pollution. The most common type of pharmaceutical drugs that are detected in the environment includes antibiotics, analgesics, NSAIDs, and pain-relieving drugs. These drugs alter the food chain of the organisms causing chaos mainly in the marine ecosystem. Pharmaceutical drugs are found only in shallow amounts (ng/mg) they have a huge impact on the living system. The consumption of water contaminated with pharmaceutical ingredients can disrupt reproduction, hormonal imbalance, cancer, and respiratory problems. Various methods are used to remove these chemicals from the environment. In this review, we mainly focused on the emerging hybrid technologies and their significance in the effective treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater. This review paper primarily elaborates on the merits and demerits of existing conventional technologies helpful in developing integrated technologies for the modern era of pharmaceutical effluent treatment. This review paper further in detail discusses the various strategies of eco-friendly bioremediation techniques namely biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bacterial degradation, mycoremediation, phytoremediation, and others for the ultimate removal of pharmaceutical contaminants in wastewater. The review makes clear that targeted and hybrid solutions are what the world will require in the future to get rid of these pharmacological prints.

Covalent organic frameworks: Pioneering remediation solutions for organic pollutants

Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) have emerged as a promising class of crystalline porous materials with customizable structures, high surface areas, and tunable functionalities. Their unique properties make them attractive candidates for addressing environmental contamination caused by pharmaceuticals, pesticides, industrial chemicals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and endocrine disruptors (EDCs). This review article provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements and applications of COFs in removing and remedying various environmental contaminants. We delve into the synthesis, properties, and performance of COFs and their potential limitations and future prospects.

Anticancer drugs drive changes in the performance, abundance, diversity, and composition of eukaryotic communities of an aerobic granular sludge system

Anticancer drugs are emerging contaminants that are being increasingly detected in urban wastewater. However, there is limited knowledge on the use of biological wastewater treatments, such as granular sludge systems (AGSs), to remove these substances and on their impacts on the general performance of the system and the eukaryotic communities in the granules. We investigated the impacts of three anticancer drugs commonly found in wastewater treatment plants and applied at three different concentrations on the removal efficiency of anticancer drugs, physicochemical parameters, and the eukaryotic microbiome of an AGS operated in a sequential batch reactor (SBR). Anticancer drugs applied at medium and high concentrations significantly decreased the removal efficiency of total nitrogen, the granular biomass concentration, and the size and setting velocity of granules. However, these effects disappeared after not adding the drugs for about a month thus showing the plasticity of the system to return to original levels. Regardless of the concentration of anticancer drugs tested, the AGS technology was effective in removing these substances, with removal rates in the range of 68.5%-100%. The presence of anticancer drugs at medium and high concentrations significantly decreased the abundance of total fungi, an effect that was linked to changes in the physicochemical parameters. Anticancer drugs also induced decreases in the diversity of the eukaryotic community, altered the community composition, and reduced the network complexity when applied at medium and high concentrations. Taxa responsive to the presence of anticancer drugs were identified. The diversity and composition of the eukaryotic microbiome returned to original diversity levels after not adding the drugs for about a month. Overall, this study increases our understanding of the impacts of anticancer drugs on the performance and eukaryotic microbiome of an AGS and highlights the need for monitoring these substances.

Degradation of methotrexate by unactivated and solar-activated peroxymonosulfate in water: Moiety-specific reaction kinetics and transformation product-associated risks

Anticancer drugs have raised worldwide concern owing to their ubiquitous occurrence and ecological risks, necessitating the development of efficient removal strategies in water and wastewater treatment. Although peroxymonosulfate (PMS) is known to be a promising chemical in water decontamination, limited information is available regarding the removal efficiency of anticancer drugs by PMS and solar/PMS systems. This study first reports the moiety-specific reaction kinetics and mechanisms of methotrexate (MTX), an anticancer drug with widespread attention, by PMS (unactivated) and solar-activated PMS in water. It was found that MTX abatement by the direct PMS oxidation followed second-order kinetics, and the pH-dependent rate constants increased from 0.4 M-1 s-1 (pH 5.0) to 1.3 M-1 s-1 (pH 8.0), with a slight decrease to 1.1 M-1 s-1 at pH 9.0. The presence of chloride and bromide exerted no obvious influence on the removal of MTX by PMS. Furthermore, the chemical reactivity of MTX and its seven substructures with different reactive species was evaluated, and the degradation contributions of the reactive species involved were quantitatively analyzed in the solar/PMS system. The product analysis suggested similar reaction pathways of MTX by PMS and solar/PMS systems. The persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of the transformation products were investigated, indicating treatment-driven risks. Notably, MTX can be removed efficiently from both municipal and hospital wastewater effluents by the solar/PMS system, suggesting its great potential in wastewater treatment applications. Overall, this study systematically evaluated the elimination of MTX by the unactivated PMS and solar/PMS treatment processes in water. The obtained findings may have implications for the mechanistic understanding and development of PMS-based processes for the degradation of such micropollutants in wastewater.

Theoretical rejection of fifty-four antineoplastic drugs by different nanofiltration membranes

The rise of nanofiltration technologies holds great promise for creating more effective and affordable techniques aiming to remove undesirable pollutants from wastewaters. Despite nanofiltration's promising potential in removing antineoplastic drugs from liquid matrices, the limited information on this topic makes it important to estimate the rejection rates for a larger number of compounds, particularly the emerging ones, in order to preview the nanofiltration performance. Aiming to have preliminary estimations of the rejection rates of antineoplastic drugs by nanofiltration, 54 antineoplastic drugs were studied in 5 nanofiltration membranes (Desal 5DK, Desal HL, Trisep TS-80, NF270, and NF50), using a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model. While this methodology provides useful and reliable predictions of the rejections of compounds by nanofiltration, particularly for hydrophilic and neutral compounds, it is important to note that QSAR results should always be corroborated by experimental assays, as predictions were confirmed to have their limitations (especially for hydrophobic and charged compounds). Out of the 54 studied antineoplastic drugs, 29 were predicted to have a rejection that could go up to 100%, independent of the membrane used. Nonetheless, there were 2 antineoplastic drugs, fluorouracil and thiotepa, for which negligible removals were obtained (<21%). This study's findings may contribute (i) to the selection of the most appropriate nanofiltration membranes for removing antineoplastic drugs from wastewaters and (ii) to assist in the design of effective treatment approaches for their removal.

Nanoscale designing of metal organic framework moieties as efficient tools for environmental decontamination

Environmental pollutants, being a major and detrimental component of the ecological imbalance, need to be controlled. Serious health issues can get intensified due to contaminants present in the air, water, and soil. Accurate and rapid monitoring of environmental pollutants is imperative for the detoxification of the environment and hence living beings. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous and highly diverse adsorbent materials with tunable surface area and diverse functionality. Similarly, the conversion of MOFs into nanoscale regime leads to the formation of nanometal-organic frameworks (NMOFs) with increased selectivity, sensitivity, detection ability, and portability. The present review majorly focuses on a variety of synthetic methods including the ex situ and in situ synthesis of MOF nanocomposites and direct synthesis of NMOFs. Furthermore, a variety of applications such as nanoabsorbent, nanocatalysts, and nanosensors for different dyes, antibiotics, toxic ions, gases, pesticides, etc., are described along with illustrations. An initiative is depicted hereby using nanostructures of MOFs to decontaminate hazardous environmental toxicants.

Antineoplastic drugs in urban wastewater: Occurrence, nanofiltration treatment and toxicity screening

Antineoplastic drugs are pharmaceuticals that have been raising concerns among the scientific community due to: (i) their increasing prescription in the fight against the disease of the twentieth century (cancer); (ii) their recalcitrance to conventional wastewater treatments; (iii) their poor environmental biodegradability; and (iv) their potential risk to any eukaryotic organism. This emerges the urgency in finding solutions to mitigate the entrance and accumulation of these hazardous chemicals in the environment. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been taken into consideration to improve the degradation of antineoplastic drugs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), but the formation of by-products that are more toxic or exhibit a different toxicity profile than the parent drug is frequently reported. This work evaluates the performance of a nanofiltration pilot unit, equipped with a Desal 5DK membrane, in the treatment of real WWTP effluents contaminated (without spiking) with eleven pharmaceuticals, five of which were never studied before. Average removals of 68 ± 23% were achieved for the eleven compounds, with decreasing risks from feed to permeate for aquatic organisms from receiving waterbodies (with the exception of cyclophosphamide, for which a high risk was estimated in the permeate). Aditionally, no significative impact on the growth and germination of three different seeds (Lepidium sativum, Sinapis alba, and Sorghum saccharatum) were determined for permeate matrix in comparison to the control.

Degradation performance and potential protection mechanism of the anammox consortia in response to capecitabine

The potential risks of anti-cancer drugs such as capecitabine have attracted considerable attention due to their continuous release. Understanding the response of removal performance and protective mechanism to the presence of emerging contaminants is crucial for the application of anammox techniques in wastewater treatment. Capecitabine affected the nitrogen removal performance slightly in the activity experiment. Due to bio-adsorption and biodegradation, up to 64-70% of the capecitabine can be removed effectively. However, 10 mg/L of capecitabine significantly decreased the removal efficiency of capecitabine and total nitrogen at repeated load of capecitabine. Metabolomic analysis revealed the metabolites 5'-deoxy-5-fluorocytidine and alpha-fluoro-beta-alanine, while metagenomic analysis confirmed the biodegradation pathway and underlying gene distribution. The potentially protective mechanisms of the system against capecitabine were the increased heterotrophic bacteria and secretion of sialic acid. Blast analysis confirmed the presence of potential genes involved in the complete biosynthesis pathway of sialic acid in anammox bacteria, some of which are also found in Nitrosomonas, Thauera, and Candidatus Promineofilum.

A study to assess the health effects of an anticancer drug (cyclophosphamide) in zebrafish (Danio rerio): eco-toxicity of emerging contaminants

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is widely used for treating various kinds of cancer. Because of its high intake, metabolism and excretion, these anticancer medications have been detected in the aquatic environment. There is very limited data on the toxicity and effects of CP on aquatic organisms. The present study aims to assess the toxic effect of CP on certain oxidative stress biomarkers (superoxide dismutase-SOD, catalase-CAT, glutathione peroxidase-GPx, glutathione-GSH, glutathione S-transferases-GST and lipid peroxidation-LPO), protein, glucose, metabolising enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase-AST, alanine aminotransferase-ALT), and ion-regulatory markers (sodium ions-Na⁺, potassium ions-K⁺, and chloride ions-Cl^-), and histology in the gills and liver of Danio rerio at environmentally relevant concentrations (10, 100 and 1000 ng L^-1). Exposure to CP for 42 days led to a significant decrease in SOD, CAT, GST, GPx and GSH levels in the gills and liver tissues of zebrafish. The level of lipid peroxidation in the gills and liver tissues of zebrafish was significantly increased compared to the control group. Chronic exposure significantly changes protein, glucose, AST, ALT, Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl^- biomarkers. Fish exposed to different levels of CP showed necrosis, inflammation, degeneration and hemorrhage in the gills and hepatic tissues. The observed changes in the studied tissue biomarkers were proportional to both dose and time. In conclusion, CP at environmentally relevant concentrations causes oxidative stress, energy demand, homeostasis disturbances, and enzyme and histological alterations in the vital tissues of zebrafish. These alterations were similar to the toxic effects reported in mammalian models.

Assessing the risks of capecitabine and its active metabolite 5-fluorouracil to freshwater biota

Capecitabine (CAP, prodrug) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU, its active metabolite) are two of the most prominent cytostatics, for which no clear picture can be drawn regarding potential concentrations of effect for freshwater biota, with CAP being grouped in the least studied cytostatic, whereas 5-FU has been classified as of no and of high environmental risk. Accordingly, the present work aimed to assess the ecotoxicity of CAP and 5-FU in three freshwater species, which included a 72-h assay with the producer Raphidocelis subcapitata; a 96-h assay with the invertebrate secondary consumer Hydra viridissima; and a 96-h assay with embryos of the vertebrate secondary consumer Danio rerio. The following endpoints were monitored: yield and population growth rate for the algae; mortality, morphological alterations, and post-exposure feeding rates for the cnidarian; and mortality, hatching, and malformations for the fish. Overall, organisms' sensitivity to CAP decreased in the following order: R. subcapitata > H. viridissima > D. rerio, whereas for 5-FU, it decreased in the following order: H. viridissima > D. rerio > R. subcapitata. For CAP, no median lethal effective concentrations (LC/EC₅₀) were possible to compute for D. rerio, with no significant mortality or malformations registered in embryos exposed at concentrations up to 800 mg L^-1. For R. subcapitata, the EC₅₀s were 0.077 and 0.63 mg L^-1 for yield and growth rate, respectively, and for H. viridissima, the EC_50,30 min for feeding was 22.0 mg L^-1. For 5-FU, no EC_50s could be computed for R. subcapitata, whilst the EC_50s for H. viridissima mortality and feeding were 55.4 and 67.9 mg L^-1, respectively, and for D. rerio, the LC_50,96 h and EC_50,96 h (hatching and abnormalities) were 4546, 4100, and 2459 mg L^-1, respectively. Assuming similar modes of action for both compounds and their co-occurrence, the combined risk quotient of the two chemicals was determined to be 7.97, which represents a risk for freshwater biota. Anticipating the increased consumption of these compounds and cancer development trends worldwide, these impacts may be further aggravated.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the wastewater of a Greek hospital: Combining consumption data collection and LC-QTOF-MS analysis

In this article we applied drug consumption approach and chemical analysis in parallel to investigate the concentrations of a large number of pharmaceuticals in different streams of a General Hospital. Drugs consumption data was collected during two periods (Period 1, 2) and the predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) were estimated for the wastewater of a building housing specific medical services (Point A) and for the entire hospital (Point B). Hospital wastewater samples (HWW) samples were also collected from these points and periods and the measured environmental concentrations (MEC) were determined using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS. According to consumption data, the highest number of drugs was consumed in the departments of Hematology, Intensive Care Unit, Cardiology, Internal Medicine, and Oncology, while the number of active substances used in the hospital was 413 (Period 1) and 362 (Period 2). For most substances, much higher PEC and MEC values were found at the HWW of Point A indicating that on-site treatment of this stream could be examined in the future. The application of wide-scope target analysis allowed the quantification of 122 compounds, while 21 additional substances were identified using suspect screening. The highest mean concentrations in Period 1 were found for acetaminophen (1100 μg/L) and rifaximin (723 μg/L), while in Period 2 for iopromide (458 μg/L) and acyclovir (408 μg/L). Among the detected compounds, 19 metabolites were determined. Atenolol acid, 1-hydroxy-midazolam and clopidogrel carboxylic acid were quantified at concentrations much higher than parent compounds indicating the importance of metabolites' monitoring in HWW. Calculation of PEC/MEC ratio for 36 pharmaceuticals showed sufficient correlation of these values for 19 % to 33 % of the substances depending on the examined period and sampling point. The parallel collection of drugs consumption data and chemical analysis give a thorough picture of the substances present in HWW and their main sources, facilitating decision-making for their better management.

Contributions towards the hazard evaluation of two widely used cytostatic drugs

Cytostatic drugs are one of the most important therapeutic options for cancer, a disease that is expected to affect 29 million individuals by 2040. After being excreted, cytostatics reach wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which are unable to efficiently remove them, and consequently, they will be released into the aquatic environment. Due to the highly toxic properties of cytostatics, it is particularly relevant to evaluate their potential ecological risk. Yet, cytostatics toxicity data is still not available for various species. In this work, the ecotoxicity of two widely consumed cytostatics, cyclophosphamide (CYP-as a model cytostatic) and mycophenolic acid (MPA-as a priority cytostatic), was evaluated on three freshwater species-Raphidocelis subcapitata, Brachionus calyciflorus, and Danio rerio, and the risk quotient (RQ) was assessed. Both drugs significantly affected the yield and growth inhibition of the microalgae, while for rotifers, the least sensitive species, only significant effects were registered for CYP. These drugs also caused significant effects on the mortality and morphological abnormalities on zebrafish. The estimation of the RQ discloses that CYP seems to pose a low risk to aquatic biota while MPA poses a very high risk. Altogether, these results emphasize the need for more complete environmental risk assessments, to properly prioritize and rank cytostatics according to their potentially toxic effects on the environment and aquatic biota.

Decentralized systems for the treatment of antimicrobial compounds released from hospital aquatic wastes

In many developing countries, untreated hospital effluents are discharged and treated simultaneously with municipal wastewater. However, if the hospital effluents are not treated separately, they pose concerning health risks due to the possible transport of the antimicrobial genes and microbes in the environment. Such effluent is considered as a point source for a number of potentially infectious microorganisms, waste antimicrobial compounds and other contaminants that could promote antimicrobial resistance development. The removal of these contaminants prior to discharge reduces the exposure of antimicrobials to the environment and this should lower the risk of superbug development. At an effluent discharge site, suitable pre-treatment of wastewater containing antimicrobials could maximise the ecological impact with potentially reduced risk to human health. In addressing these points, this paper reviews the applications of decentralized treatment systems toward reducing the concentration of antimicrobials in wastewater. The most commonly used techniques in decentralized wastewater treatment systems for onsite removal of antimicrobials were discussed and evidence suggests that hybrid techniques should be more useful for the efficient removal of antimicrobials. It is concluded that alongside the cooperation of administration departments, health industries, water treatment authorities and general public, decentralized treatment technology can efficiently enhance the removal of antimicrobial compounds, thereby decreasing the concentration of contaminants released to the environment that could pose risks to human and ecological health due to development of antimicrobial resistance in microbes.

Challenges of TiO2 heterogeneous photocatalysis on cytostatic compounds degradation: state of the art

The following work provides a perspective on the degradation of cytostatic pollutants through TiO₂ heterogeneous photocatalysis. Cytostatic drugs are emerging pollutants used for cancer treatment found in hospital and domestic wastewater. Small amounts of cytostatic pollutants may pose severe health problems in human beings, animals, and plants after prolonged contact. This research presents a general review of some water treatment methods, such as aerobic activated sludge, enzymatic degradation, nanofiltration and chlorination, that have been used for the degradation or elimination of cytostatic drugs in wastewater. In recent years, photocatalysis has become important to solve this problem; these advanced oxidation process uses pure and modified TiO₂ to degrade cytostatic contaminants and convert them into non-harmful substances or to eliminate them completely. This work contains a comprehensive review of the heterogeneous photocatalysis process and mechanism, and its application on the removal of cytostatic pollutants. Even if research on the topic is still scarce, this literature review provides interesting highlights on the scope of the research field, and the path such research could follow.

Long-Term Calculation of Predicted Environmental Concentrations to Assess the Risk of Anticancer Drugs in Environmental Waters

This study reports the consumption data for 132 anticancer drugs in Catalonia (NE Spain) during the period of 2013-2017 and calculates the predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) in wastewater effluents and rivers. This long-term analysis can determine the evolution of drugs present in the environment according to prescriptions and serve as an adequate tool to determine their presence and impact. Data showed that out of 132 compounds prescribed, 77 reached wastewater effluents, which accounted for the most consumed, those excreted in the highest doses, and the least biodegradable. Once diluted in receiving river waters, only mycophenolic acid and hydroxycarbamide had PEC values higher than 10 ng L-1, which is the value set by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) to carry out further risk assessment. It was also observed that compounds present in river water are those that can pose a high risk, given their persistence and capability to bioaccumulate. Therefore, this study shows that the estimation of PEC, together with physico-chemical properties of detected compounds, is a useful tool to determine the long-term presence and fate of this new class of emerging contaminants.

Magnetite graphene oxide modified with β-cyclodextrin as an effective adsorbent for the removal of methotrexate and doxorubicin hydrochloride from water

The purpose of this investigation was to analyze the performance of magnetite graphene oxide modified with β-cyclodextrin (GO@Fe₃O₄@β-CD) for adsorption of methotrexate (MTX) and doxorubicin (DOX) from aqueous solutions. Characterization of GO@Fe₃O₄@β-CD was carried out using some methods. The perfect conditions for the adsorption of MTX and DOX were 7.0, 45 min, 20 mg, and 25 °C for solution pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and temperature, respectively, with removal efficiency values of 97.8% and 98.5% for MTX and DOX, respectively. The adsorption kinetic of MTX and DOX via GO@Fe₃O₄@β-CD followed pseudo second-order (PSO) model, while the adsorption isotherm obeyed Langmuir model by monolayer adsorption with maximum adsorption capacities of 198.5 and 204.5 mg g^-1 for MTX and DOX, respectively. Therefore, it could be argued that HCl and 0.1 mol L^-1 NaOH would reflect adequate elution properties for GO@Fe₃O₄@β-CD recovery.

Biodegradation of cyclophosphamide and etoposide by white rot fungi and their degradation kinetics

The biodegradation of cyclophosphamide and etoposide by Trametes versicolor (AH05), Ganoderma lucidum (MTCC-1039), and Phanerochaete chrysosporium (MTCC-787) were tested for 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 days, respectively. G. lucidum achieved the highest degradation efficiency of cyclophosphamide (71.5%) and etoposide (98.4%) after 6 days of treatment. The degradation efficiency of T. versicolor and P. chrysosporium for etoposide was 79.8% and 76.8%, respectively. However, no degradation of cyclophosphamide was achieved with P. chrysosporium, although it showed the highest sorption efficiency for cyclophosphamide (23.7%). Trametes versicolor achieved only 1.4% degradation of cyclophosphamide, that includes both biodegradation and biosorption. The pseudo first-order degradation kinetics explained the degradation of etoposide and cyclophosphamide with t_1/2 values of 1.32 and 4.43 days and 'k' constant of 0.16 and 0.54 day^-1, respectively.

Cyclophosphamide affects eye development and locomotion in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is a broad-spectrum anticancer drug and has been frequently detected in aquatic environments due to its incomplete removal by wastewater treatment facilities and slow degradation in waters. Its toxicity in fish remains largely unknown. In this study, zebrafish eggs <4 h post fertilization (hpf) were exposed to CP at the concentrations from 0.5 to 50.0 μg/L until 168 hpf, and its toxicity was evaluated by biochemical, transcriptomic, and behavioral approaches. The results showed that malformation and mortality rates increased with CP concentrations. The 7-day malformation EC₅₀ and mortality (LC₃₀) by CP were calculated to be 86.8 μg/L and 7.5 mg/L, respectively. Inhibited startle response (light to dark) (a minimal of 19%) and reduced swimming velocity (a minimal of 30%) were observed in the CP-exposed larvae. The thicknesses of retinal ganglion layer, inner plexiform layer, and inner nuclear layer in the retina were increased after exposure to CP. Meanwhile, exposure to CP increased karyorrhexis and karyolysis in the liver tissue. Transcriptomic analysis identified 607 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (159 up-regulated and 448 down-regulated). A significant reduction in the transcripts of sgk1 (the FoxO pathway), jun (the MAPK pathway), and diabloa (apoptosis pathway) were observed in the CP-treated larvae. This study has demonstrated that low concentrations of CP cause malformation, reduced swimming capacity, histopathological alterations in the retina and liver tissues, and interference on transcriptional expressions of key genes associated with different pathways. The ecological risk of CP and other anticancer drugs to aquatic organisms merits future investigation.

Covalent organic frameworks-based smart materials for mitigation of pharmaceutical pollutants from aqueous solution

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are an emergent group of crystalline porous materials that have gained incredible interest in recent years. With foreseeable controllable functionalities and structural configurations, the constructions and catalytic properties of these organic polymeric materials can be controlled to fabricate targeted materials. The specified monomer linkers and pre-designed architecture of COFs facilitate the post-synthetic modifications for introducing novel functions and useful properties. By virtue of inherent porosity, robust framework, well-ordered geometry, functionality, higher stability, and amenability to functionalization, COFs and COFs-based composites are regarded as prospective nanomaterials for environmental clean-up and remediation. This report spotlights the state-of-the-art advances and progress in COFs-based materials to efficiently mitigate pharmaceutical-based environmental pollutants from aqueous solutions. Synthesis approaches, structure, functionalization, and sustainability aspects of COFs are discussed. Moreover, the adsorptive and photocatalytic potential of COFs and their derived nanocomposites for removal and degradation of pharmaceuticals are thoroughly vetted. In addition to deciphering adsorption mechanism/isotherms, the stability, regeneratability and reproducibility are also delineated. Lastly, the outcomes are summed up, and new directions are proposed to widen the promise of COF-based smart materials in diverse fields.

Lethal and Sub-Lethal Effects and Modulation of Gene Expression Induced by T Kinase Inhibitors in Zebrafish (Danio Rerio) Embryos

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are designed for targeted cancer therapy. The consumption of these drugs during the last 20 years has been constantly rising. In the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity test, we assessed the toxicity of six TKIs: imatinib mesylate, erlotinib, nilotinib, dasatinib, sorafenib and regorafenib. Imatinib mesylate and dasatinib induced lethal effects, while regorafenib, sorfenib and dasatinib caused a significant increase of sub-lethal effects, predominantly oedema, no blood circulation and formation of blood aggregates. The analyses of the changes in the expression of selected genes associated with the hormone system after the exposure to imatinib mesylate, dasatinib and regorafenib demonstrated that all three tested TKIs deregulated the expression of oestrogen receptor esr1, cytochrome P450 aromatase (cypa19b) and hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase (hsd3b), regorafenib, and also thyroglobulin (tg). The expression of genes involved in the DNA damage response (gadd45 and mcm6) and apoptosis (bcl2) was deregulated only by exposure to regorafenib. The data indicate that common mechanisms, namely antiangiogenic activity and interference with steroidogenesis are involved in the TKI induced sub-lethal effects and potential hormone disrupting activity, respectively. The residues of TKIs may represent an environmental hazard; therefore, further ecotoxicological studies focusing also on the effects of their mixtures are warranted.

Treatment-driven removal efficiency, product formation, and toxicity evolution of antineoplastic agents: Current status and implications for water safety assessment

Antineoplastic compounds, designed for chemotherapeutic anticancer therapy, have become emerging contaminants of global concern over the past decade due to their ubiquitous occurrence, environmental persistence, and multiple adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. Increasing efforts have been devoted to developing efficient strategies for remediating water containing these micropollutants. In this study, the physicochemical properties, natural attenuation, and chemical reactivity with aqueous oxidizing species of five antineoplastic drugs with the highest environmental prevalence (i.e., tamoxifen, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, 5-fluorouracil, and methotrexate) were summarized. The removal performance, transformation products (TPs) of varying structures, overall reaction pathways, and toxicity evolution during different treatments were evaluated and discussed. Additionally, the biodegradability and multi-endpoint toxicity of each TP were predicted using in silico QSAR software. Depending on their distinct inherent structures, the reactivity of the antineoplastics with oxidizing species varied, with hydroxyl radicals exhibiting unparalleled merits in rapid oxidation. Complete elimination of these contaminants was observed during oxidative treatments, but with inadequate mineralization. Notably, the increase in toxicity within multiple processes was determined based on both experimental bioassays and theoretical predictions. This may be attributed to the adverse effects induced by the large number of identified and unknown TPs individually and in combination. Together with the environmental persistence and low biodegradability of most TPs, these results necessitate the application of efficient post-treatments in conjunction with a more thorough water safety evaluation (e.g., using high-throughput screening) of the mixtures of treated water and wastewater.

Effects of the antineoplastic drug cyclophosphamide on the biochemical responses of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis under different temperatures

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is an antineoplastic drug widely used in chemotherapy treatments with high consumption rates and that has been detected in the aquatic environment. After being released into the aquatic environment, CP may cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms since antineoplastics are well-known cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic and teratogenic drugs. Moreover, predicted environmental changes, such as the temperature rising, may alter the impacts caused by CP on organisms. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the effects caused by CP chronic exposure in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, under actual and predicted warming scenarios. Organisms were exposed for 28 days to different concentrations of CP (10, 100, 500 and 1000 ng/L) at control (17 ± 1.0 °C) and increased (21 ± 1.0 °C) temperatures. Biochemical responses related to metabolic capacity, energy reserves, oxidative stress and neurotoxicity were assessed. The results showed that the organisms were able to maintain their metabolic capacity under all exposure conditions. However, their antioxidant defense mechanisms were activated mostly at higher CP concentrations being able to prevent cellular damage, even under the warming scenario. Overall, the present findings suggest that temperature rise may not alter the impacts of CP towards M. galloprovincialis.

Detection of anticancer drugs in wastewater effluents: Grab versus passive sampling

The occurrence of six anticancer drugs was evaluated in wastewater effluents. Several grab samples from wastewater effluent were collected throughout a year. Capecitabine, cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide were detected at concentrations ranging from 8 to 46 ng·L^-1. Capecitabine was detected in all the sampling events whereas cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide were detected less frequently. Additionally, the suitability of using pharmaceutical-polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) to monitor the target drugs in wastewater effluents was assessed. Capecitabine, ifosfamide and cyclophosphamide were detected with POCIS and showed a linear uptake over 15 days. The sampling rates, determined in situ, were used to estimate time-weighted average concentrations. A good correlation was found between the concentration of capecitabine detected with POCIS deployed during five days (32 ± 1 ng·L^-1) and the average concentrations obtained in grab samples. The use of passive samplers has advantages over grab samples: easier analysis, less time and costs associated with the analytical method. Passive samplers also provide a time-weighted information about the concentration of pollutants in the aquatic environment. However, information may be lost when the concentration of the target compounds in wastewater effluents is low and the passive samplers are deployed for a short time.

Anticancer drugs in the aquatic ecosystem: Environmental occurrence, ecotoxicological effect and risk assessment

Anticancer drugs are a group of therapeutic agents used to enhance cell death in targeted cell types of neoplasia. Because of frequent use and eventual discharge, they have been often detected in wastewater from pharmaceutical factories and hospitals, domestic wastewater, and surface waters. The occurrence of these drugs in aquatic ecosystems and their effects on aquatic organisms have been poorly characterized. This review focuses on the global occurrence of major classes of anticancer drugs in water and sediments of freshwater ecosystems and their ecotoxicological effects at different biological levels. While the availability of data is fairly limited, concentrations of most anticancer drugs range from < 2 ng/L to 762 µg/L in receiving water, while levels in sediments and sludge vary from 0.25 to 42.5 µg/kg. Their detection frequencies were 58%, 52% (78%) and 59% in hospital wastewater, wastewater treatment plant effluents (influents) and surface water, respectively. Predicted log K_ow values of vincristine, imatinib mesylate and tamoxifen are higher than 3 and have estimated half-lives>60 d in waters using quantitative structure-activity relationship models, indicating high potential for persistence and bioaccumulation. Based on a species sensitivity distribution evaluation of 9 compounds, crustaceans are most sensitive to anticancer drugs. The most hazardous compound is cisplatin which has a hazard concentration at the 5th percentile. For Daphnia magna, the acute toxicities of major classes of anticancer drugs are ranked as platinum complexes > endocrine therapy agents > antibiotics > antimetabolite agents > alkylating agents. Using hazard quotient analysis based primarily on the lowest observed effect concentrations (LOECs), cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, imatinib mesylate, bicalutamide, etoposide and paclitaxel have the highest hazard for aquatic organisms. Further research is needed to identify appropriate chronic endpoints for risk assessment thresholds as well as to better understand the mechanisms of action and the potential multigenerational toxicity, and trophic transfer in ecosystems.

The antineoplastic drugs cyclophosphamide and cisplatin in the aquatic environment - Review

Cyclophosphamide (CP) and Cisplatin (CDDP) are antineoplastic drugs widely used in the treatment of neoplastic diseases that have been detected in the aquatic environment. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the presence in the aquatic environment of these two drugs and their effects on freshwater and marine invertebrates, which includes good model species in ecotoxicology and risk assessment programs. The consumption levels, occurrence in freshwater and marine ecosystems, and the impacts exerted on aquatic organisms, even at low concentrations, justifies this review and the selection of these two drugs. Both pharmaceuticals were detected in different aquatic environments, with concentrations ranging from ng L^-1 up to 687.0 μg L^-1 (CP) and 250 μg L^-1 (CDDP). The available studies showed that CP and CDDP induce individual and sub-individual impacts on aquatic invertebrate species. The most common effects reported were changes in the reproductive function, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and neurotoxicity. The literature used in this review supports the need to increase monitoring studies concerning the occurrence of antineoplastic drugs in the aquatic environment since negative effects have been reported even at trace concentrations (ng L^-1). Furthermore, marine ecosystems should be considered as a priority since less is known on the occurrence and effects of antineoplastic drugs in this environment comparing to freshwater ecosystems.

Edible Flowers: Antioxidant Compounds and Their Functional Properties

Edible flowers have been widely consumed for ages until now. The attractive colors and shapes, exotic aroma, and delightful taste make edible flowers very easy to attain. Moreover, they also provide health benefits for consumers due to the unique composition and concentration of antioxidant compounds in the matrices. Knowing the bioactive compounds and their functional properties from edible flowers is necessary to diversify the usage and reach broader consumers. Therefore, this reported review could be useful for functional product development, engaging the discussed edible flowers. We present a comprehensive review of edible flower composition and the functional properties of their antioxidant compounds, mainly phenolics.

Solar photo-Fenton treatment of the anti-cancer drug anastrozole in different aqueous matrices at near-neutral pH: Transformation products identification, pathways proposal, and in silico (Q)SAR risk assessment

Anastrozole (ANZ) is a breast cancer drug that was introduced onto the pharmaceutical market in the 1990s and is still one of the most widely consumed cytotoxic compounds. Due to the persistence of the drug, its continued presence after passing through wastewater treatment plants can lead to harm to aquatic environments. The present study investigates use of the solar photo-Fenton (SPF) process applied for ANZ degradation, considering the fate of ANZ and its transformation products (TPs). The SPF process was performed using different concentrations of ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) and H₂O₂ in solutions produced with deionized water (DW) and hospital wastewater (HWW), at pH close to neutrality. When solar irradiation in the SPF process was carried out the best ANZ removal rates were found under the following conditions: (i) for the DW matrix, [ANZ]₀ = 50 μg L^-1, [Fe²⁺] = 5 mg L^-1, and [H₂O₂]₀ = 25 mg L^-1, achieving 95% primary ANZ elimination; (ii) for the HWW matrix, [ANZ]₀ = 50 μg L^-1, [Fe²⁺] = 10 mg L^-1(multiple additions), and [H₂O₂]₀ = 25 mg L^-1, achieving 51% primary ANZ elimination. LC-QTOF MS analysis allowed to identify tentatively five transformation products (TPs) formed during the ANZ degradation process in DW, and two TPs when HWW was used. The main proposed degradation pathways were demethylation and hydroxylation. Different in silico models free available (quantitative) structure-activity relationship ((Q)SAR) software were used to predict the ecotoxicities and environmental fates of ANZ and the TPs. The in silico (Q)SAR predictions indicated that ANZ and the TPs were non-biodegradable compounds. In silico (Q)SAR predictions for mutagenicity and carcinogenicity end-points identified some TPs that require further study. Attention is drawn to the formation of several TPs for which statistical and rule-based positive alerts for mutagenic activities were found, requiring further confirmatory in vitro validation tests.

Adsorptive removal of pharmaceuticals from water using metal-organic frameworks: A review

Pharmaceutical pollution has emerged as a highly concerned issue due to its adverse effects. Elevated concentrations of pharmaceuticals in water should be regulated to satisfy the requirement for the provision of clean water. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with high specific surface area, controllable porous structure, and facile modification can serve as promising adsorbents for the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from water. In this review, a selected collection illustrating the reliable strategies and concepts to prepare the MOFs-based materials with superior water stability is described. In addition, recent progress on the adsorptive removal of pharmaceutical pollutant using burgeoning and functional MOFs is also summarized in terms of maximum capacity, equilibrium time, and regenerate ability. Meanwhile, to understand the adsorption mechanism, related interactions including coordination with unsaturated site, pore-filling effect, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic, and π-π stacking are further discussed. Finally, critical perspectives/assessment of future research emphasising on fabricating desirable MOFs and establishing structure-property relationships to facilitate capture performance are identified.

Threat and sustainable technological solution for antineoplastic drugs pollution: Review on a persisting global issue

In the past 20 years, the discharge of pharmaceuticals and their presence in the aquatic environment have been continuously increasing and this has caused serious public health and environmental concerns. Antineoplastic drugs are used in chemotherapy, in large quantities worldwide, for the treatment of continuously increasing cancer cases. Antineoplastic drugs also contaminate water sources and possess mutagenic, cytostatic and eco-toxicological effects on microorganisms present in the aquatic environment as well as on human health. Due to the recalcitrant nature of antineoplastic drugs, the commonly used wastewater treatment processes are not able to eliminate these drugs. Globally, various anticancer drugs are being consumed during chemotherapy in hospitals and households by out-patients. These anti-cancer agents enter the water bodies in their original form or as metabolites via urine and faeces of the out-patients or the patients admitted in hospitals. Due to its high lipid solubility, the antineoplastic drugs accumulate in the fatty tissues of the organisms. These drugs enter through the food chain and cause adverse health effects on humans due to their cytotoxic and genotoxic properties. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) elucidated new regulations for the management of hazardous pharmaceuticals in the water environment. In this paper, the role of antineoplastic agents as emerging water contaminants, its transfer through the food chain, its eco-toxicological properties and effects, technological solutions and management aspects were reviewed.

Environmental Remediation of Antineoplastic Drugs: Present Status, Challenges, and Future Directions

The global burden of cancer is on the rise, and as a result, the number of therapeutics administered for chemotherapy is increasing. The occupational exposure, recalcitrant nature and ecotoxicological toxicity of these therapeutics, referred to as antineoplastic (ANP) drugs, have raised concerns about their safe remediation. This review provides an overview of the environmental source of ANPs agents, with emphasis on the currently used remediation approaches. Outpatient excreta, hospital effluents, and waste from pharmaceutical industries are the primary source of ANP waste. The current review describes various biotic and abiotic methods used in the remediation of ANP drugs in the environment. Abiotic methods often generate transformation products (TPs) of unknown toxicity. In this light, obtaining data on the environmental toxicity of ANPs and its TPs is crucial to determine their toxic effect on the ecosystem. We also discuss the biodegradation of ANP drugs using monoculture of fungal and bacterial species, and microbial consortia in sewage treatment plants. The current review effort further explores a safe and sustainable approach for ANP waste treatment to replace existing chemical and oxidation intensive treatment approaches. To conclude, we assess the possibility of integrating biotic and abiotic methods of ANP drug degradation.

In Vitro Cytotoxicity Study of Cyclophosphamide, Etoposide and Paclitaxel on Monocyte Macrophage Cell Line Raw 264.7

The presence of antineoplastic compounds in aquatic ecosystem is an emerging challenge for the society. Antineoplastic compounds released into the aquatic environment exhibit a potential threat to normal aquatic life. Particularly, antineoplastic compounds are responsible for direct or indirect interference with the cellular DNA of an organism and cause toxicity to cells. The present study focused on the assessment of in vitro toxic effect of cyclophosphamide, etoposide and paclitaxel on Raw 264.7 cell line (mouse monocyte macrophage cells). The inhibitory concentration of cyclophosphamide, etoposide, and paclitaxel was determined. The IC₅₀ values of these compounds were 145.44, 5.40, and 69.76 µg ml^-1 respectively. This is the first report on toxicity analysis of cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel and etoposide on Raw 264.7 cell line by reducing cell viability and indicating the cell cytotoxicity i.e., 69.58% for cyclophosphamide, 92.01% for etoposide and 88.85% for paclitaxel on concentration 250 µg ml^-1. The results of their cytotoxicity assessment highlight the need of improvement in sewage treatment technology for the efficient removal of these compounds from aquatic environment.