Nod2 deficiency protects mice from cholestatic liver disease by increasing renal excretion of bile acids

Integrated analysis reveals crosstalk between pyroptosis and immune regulation in renal fibrosis

Purpose

The pathogenesis of renal fibrosis (RF) involves intricate interactions between profibrotic processes and immune responses. This study aimed to explore the potential involvement of the pyroptosis signaling pathway in immune microenvironment regulation within the context of RF. Through comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation, we investigated the influence of pyroptosis on the immune landscape in RF.

Methods

We obtained RNA-seq datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases and identified Pyroptosis-Associated Regulators (PARs) through literature reviews. Systematic evaluation of alterations in 27 PARs was performed in RF and normal kidney samples, followed by relevant functional analyses. Unsupervised cluster analysis revealed distinct pyroptosis modification patterns. Using single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA), we examined the correlation between pyroptosis and immune infiltration. Hub regulators were identified via weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) and further validated in a single-cell RNA-seq dataset. We also established a unilateral ureteral obstruction-induced RF mouse model to verify the expression of key regulators at the mRNA and protein levels.

Results

Our comprehensive analysis revealed altered expression of 19 PARs in RF samples compared to normal samples. Five hub regulators, namely PYCARD, CASP1, AIM2, NOD2, and CASP9, exhibited potential as biomarkers for RF. Based on these regulators, a classifier capable of distinguishing normal samples from RF samples was developed. Furthermore, we identified correlations between immune features and PARs expression, with PYCARD positively associated with regulatory T cells abundance in fibrotic tissues. Unsupervised clustering of RF samples yielded two distinct subtypes (Subtype A and Subtype B), with Subtype B characterized by active immune responses against RF. Subsequent WGCNA analysis identified PYCARD, CASP1, and NOD2 as hub PARs in the pyroptosis modification patterns. Single-cell level validation confirmed PYCARD expression in myofibroblasts, implicating its significance in the stress response of myofibroblasts to injury. In vivo experimental validation further demonstrated elevated PYCARD expression in RF, accompanied by infiltration of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that pyroptosis plays a pivotal role in orchestrating the immune microenvironment of RF. This study provides valuable insights into the pathogenesis of RF and highlights potential targets for future therapeutic interventions.

Hepatocyte CHRNA4 mediates the MASH-promotive effects of immune cell-produced acetylcholine and smoking exposure in mice and humans

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) is a leading risk factor for liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Here, we report that CHRNA4, a subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), is an accelerator of MASH progression. CHRNA4 also mediates the MASH-promotive effects induced by smoking. Chrna4 was expressed specifically in hepatocytes and exhibited increased levels in mice and patients with MASH. Elevated CHRNA4 levels were positively correlated with MASH severity. We further revealed that during MASH development, acetylcholine released from immune cells or nicotine derived from smoking functioned as an agonist to activate hepatocyte-intrinsic CHRNA4, inducing calcium influx and activation of inflammatory signaling. The communication between immune cells and hepatocytes via the acetylcholine-CHRNA4 axis led to the production of a variety of cytokines, eliciting inflammation in liver and promoting the pathogenesis of MASH. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of CHRNA4 protected mice from diet-induced MASH. Targeting CHRNA4 might be a promising strategy for MASH therapeutics.

Hyocholic acid retards renal fibrosis by regulating lipid metabolism and inflammatory response in a sheep model

The kidneys are vital organs that regulate metabolic homeostasis in the body, filter waste products from the blood, and remove extrahepatic bile acids. We previously found that the dietary supplementation of hyocholic acid alleviated the sheep body lipid deposition and decreased kidney weight. This study evaluated hyocholic acid's (HCA) roles and mechanisms on lipid metabolism and anti-inflammatory function in the kidney under a high-energy diet. Histomicrograph showing the apparent improvement by HCA by attenuating structural damage. The HCA treatment reduced the renal accumulation of cholesterol. Bile acid receptors such as LXR and FXR were activated at the protein level. HCA significantly altered several genes related to immune response (NF-κB, IL-6, and MCP1) and fibrosis (TGF-β, Col1α1, and α-SMA). These significant changes correlated with renal lipid accumulation. The KEGG pathways including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, insulin resistance, TNF signaling pathway, and Th17 cell differentiation were enriched and NF-κB, IL-6, and TGF-β were identified as the core interconnected genes. This study revealed that HCA plays an efficient role in alleviating kidney lipids accumulation and inflammatory response through crucial genes such as FXR, LXR, HMGCR, NF-κB, IL-6, MCP1, and TGF-β, and expand our understanding of HCA's role in kidney function. In conclusion, HCA mitigated kidney fibrosis, lipid metabolism disorders and immune responses induced by a high-energy diet by regulating a potential LXR/SREBP2/TGF-β-NF-κB signaling pathway.

How to calculate sample size in animal and human studies

One of the most important statistical analyses when designing animal and human studies is the calculation of the required sample size. In this review, we define central terms in the context of sample size determination, including mean, standard deviation, statistical hypothesis testing, type I/II error, power, direction of effect, effect size, expected attrition, corrected sample size, and allocation ratio. We also provide practical examples of sample size calculations for animal and human studies based on pilot studies, larger studies similar to the proposed study-or if no previous studies are available-estimated magnitudes of the effect size per Cohen and Sawilowsky.

Association between iron metabolism and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2017-2018) and a controlled animal study

BACKGROUND

Iron metabolism may be involved in the pathogenesis of the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The relationship between iron metabolism and NAFLD has not been clearly established. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between biomarkers of iron metabolism and NAFLD.

METHODS

Based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), restricted cubic spline models and multivariable logistic regression were used to examine the association between iron metabolism [serum iron (SI), serum ferritin (SF), transferrin saturation (TSAT), and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR)] and the risk for NAFLD. In addition, stratified subgroup analysis was performed for the association between TSAT and NAFLD. Moreover, serum TSAT levels were determined in male mice with NAFLD. The expression of hepcidin and ferroportin, vital regulators of iron metabolism, were analyzed in the livers of mice by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and patients with NAFLD by microarray collected from the GEO data repository.

RESULTS

Patients with NAFLD showed decreased SI, SF, and TSAT levels and increased STfR levels based on the NHANES. After adjusting for confounding factors, TSAT was significantly negatively correlated with NAFLD. Of note, the relationship between TSAT and NAFLD differed in the four subgroups of age, sex, race, and BMI (P for interaction < 0.05). Consistently, mice with NAFLD exhibited decreased serum TSAT levels. Decreased hepcidin and increased ferroportin gene expression were observed in the livers of patients and mice with NAFLD.

CONCLUSION

Serum TSAT levels and hepatic hepcidin expression were decreased in both patients and mice with NAFLD. Among multiple biomarkers of iron metabolism, lower TSAT levels were significantly associated with a higher risk of NAFLD in the U.S. general population. These findings might provide new ideas for the prediction, diagnosis, and mechanistic exploration of NAFLD.

Inexpensive, Accurate, and Stable Method to Quantitate Blood Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) Levels

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels are frequently determined in serum and plasma samples and are a primary measure to quantitate hepatocellular injury in rodents, humans, and other organisms. An accurate, reliable, and scalable assay is hence of central importance. Here, we describe a methodology that fulfills those requirements, and demonstrates an excellent performance similar to a commercial ALT kit, with a long stable performance over several subsequent runs. Further, anticoagulation of blood samples with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or heparin results in similar ALT concentrations with this assay, whereas no anticoagulation significantly increases ALT levels. Mild hemolysis does not significantly increase ALT levels; however, moderate to severe hemolysis does lead to higher ALT levels. The assay provides stable results over a wide range of associated triglyceride concentrations that can be expected in serum and plasma samples from rodents and humans with dyslipidemia. It also performs well in diluted samples with a reduction of ALT levels corresponding to the factor used to dilute the samples. The described ALT reagent is also very affordable, costing less than 1/80 of comparable commercial kits. Based on the characteristics above, this methodology is suitable for a broad spectrum of applications in mice and possibly humans, where ALT concentrations need to be determined.

Systemic ASBT inactivation protects against liver damage in obstructive cholestasis in mice

Background & Aims

Non-absorbable inhibitors of the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT; also called ileal bile acid transporter [IBAT]) are recently approved or in clinical development for multiple cholestatic liver disorders and lead to a reduction in pruritus and (markers for) liver injury. Unfortunately, non-absorbable ASBT inhibitors (ASBTi) can induce diarrhoea or may be ineffective if cholestasis is extensive and largely precludes intestinal excretion of bile acids. Systemically acting ASBTi that divert bile salts towards renal excretion may alleviate these issues.

Methods

Bile duct ligation (BDL) was performed in ASBT-deficient (ASBT knockout [KO]) mice as a model for chronic systemic ASBT inhibition in obstructive cholestasis. Co-infusion of radiolabelled taurocholate and inulin was used to quantify renal bile salt excretion after BDL. In a second (wild-type) mouse model, a combination of obeticholic acid (OCA) and intestine-restricted ASBT inhibition was used to lower the bile salt pool size before BDL.

Results

After BDL, ASBT KO mice had reduced plasma bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase compared with wild-type mice with BDL and showed a marked reduction in liver necrotic areas at histopathological analysis, suggesting decreased BDL-induced liver damage. Furthermore, ASBT KO mice had reduced bile salt pool size, lower plasma taurine-conjugated polyhydroxylated bile salt, and increased urinary bile salt excretion. Pretreatment with OCA + ASBTi in wild-type mice reduced the pool size and greatly improved liver injury markers and liver histology.

Conclusions

A reduced bile salt pool at the onset of cholestasis effectively lowers cholestatic liver injury in mice. Systemic ASBT inhibition may be valuable as treatment for cholestatic liver disease by lowering the pool size and increasing renal bile salt output even under conditions of minimal faecal bile salt secretion.

Lay summary

Novel treatment approaches against cholestatic liver disease (resulting in reduced or blocked flow of bile) involve non-absorbable inhibitors of the bile acid transport protein ASBT, but these are not always effective and/or can cause unwanted side effects. In this study, we demonstrate that systemic inhibition/inactivation of ASBT protects mice against developing severe cholestatic liver injury after bile duct ligation, by reducing bile salt pool size and increasing renal bile salt excretion.

Crosstalks between NOD1 and Histone H2A Contribute to Host Defense against Streptococcus agalactiae Infection in Zebrafish

Correlation studies about NOD1 and histones have not been reported. In the present study, we report the functional correlation between NOD1 and the histone H2A variant in response to Streptococcus agalactiae infection. In zebrafish, NOD1 deficiency significantly promoted S. agalactiae proliferation and decreased larval survival. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the significantly enriched pathways in NOD1^−/− adult zebrafish were mainly involved in immune and metabolism. Among 719 immunity-associated DEGs at 48 hpi, 74 DEGs regulated by NOD1 deficiency were histone variants. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified that H2A, H2B, and H3 had significant associations with NOD1 deficiency. Above all, S. agalactiae infection could induce the expression of intracellular histone H2A, as well as NOD1 colocalized with histone H2A, both in the cytoplasm and cell nucleus in the case of S. agalactiae infection. The overexpression of H2A variants such as zfH2A-6 protected against S. agalactiae infection and could improve cell survival in NOD1-deficient cells. Furthermore, NOD1 could interact with zfH2A-6 and cooperate with zfH2A-6 to inhibit the proliferation of S. agalactiae. NOD1 also showed a synergetic effect in inducing the expression of many antibacterial genes, especially antibacterial pattern recognition receptors PGRP2, PGRP5, and PGRP6. Collectively, these results firstly highlight the roles of NOD1 deficiency in the regulation of immune-related and metabolic pathways, and the correlation between zebrafish NOD1 and histone H2A variant in the defense against S. agalactiae infection.

Mixed plasticizers aggravated apoptosis by NOD2-RIP2-NF-κB pathway in grass carp hepatocytes

The wide application of plastics led to the wide exposure of plasticizers to the environment. As a new environmental pollutant, plasticizers' toxicity researches were far from enough in fish. To further explore these mechanisms, we used two common plasticizers (Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) expose to grass carp hepatocytes (L8824). The results showed that the mRNA levels of NOD2-RIP2-NF-κB signal pathway and its downstream inflammatory genes were significantly increased compared to those in control group. Then, the levels of mRNAs and proteins of apoptosis markers were changed, and hepatocytes apoptosis was induced. After DBP and DEHP exposure together, there were higher levels of inflammatory factors and the proportion of apoptotic cells. After NOD2 inhibitor treatment, the phenomena mentioned above were obviously alleviated. We conclude that DBP and DEHP exposure at least partially activated the NOD2-RIP2-NF-κB signal pathway in grass carp hepatocytes, and caused inflammation and apoptosis. In terms of hepatotoxicity, there was synergistic relationship between DBP and DEHP. In addition, we put forward new views on the use of plasticizers: select low toxicity plasticizers, then reduce the types of plasticizers used and reduce the high toxicity level of mixed plasticizers.

Hepatic NOD2 promotes hepatocarcinogenesis via a RIP2-mediated proinflammatory response and a novel nuclear autophagy-mediated DNA damage mechanism

Background

Key hepatic molecules linking gut dysbiosis and hepatocarcinogenesis remain largely unknown. Gut-derived gut microbiota contains pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that may circulate into the liver and, consequently, be recognized by hepatic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). NOD2, a general intracellular PRR, recognizes muramyl dipeptide (MDP), present in both gram (+) and gram (−) bacteria. Here, we investigated the role of NOD2 as a molecular sensor translating gut dysbiosis signaling into hepatocarcinogenesis.

Methods

NOD2 expression was measured in clinical hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) samples using qPCR (80 pairs), western blotting (30 pairs) and immunostaining (141 pairs). The role of NOD2 in hepatocarcinogenesis was examined in the hepatocyte-specific Nod2-knockout (Nod2^△hep), Rip2-knockout (Rip2^△hep), Lamin A/C-knockout (Lamn^△hep) and Rip2/Lamin A/C double-knockout (Rip2/Lamn^△hep) mice models of diethylnitrosamine (DEN)/CCl₄-induced HCC.

Results

NOD2 was upregulated and activated in HCC samples, and high NOD2 expression correlated with poor prognosis in HCC patients. Hepatic NOD2 deletion in vivo decreased DEN/CCl₄-induced HCC by reducing the inflammatory response, DNA damage and genomic instability. NOD2 activation increased liver inflammation via RIP2-dependent activation of the MAPK, NF-κB and STAT3 pathways. Notably, a novel RIP2-independent mechanism was discovered, whereby NOD2 activation induces the nuclear autophagy pathway. We showed that NOD2 undergoes nuclear transport and directly binds to a component of nuclear laminae, lamin A/C, to promote its protein degradation, leading to impaired DNA damage repair and increased genomic instability.

Conclusions

We reveal a novel bridge, bacterial sensor NOD2, linking gut-derived microbial metabolites to hepatocarcinogenesis via induction of the inflammatory response and nuclear autophagy. Thus, we propose hepatic NOD2 as a promising therapeutic target against HCC.

The pathogenesis of renal injury in obstructive jaundice: A review of underlying mechanisms, inducible agents and therapeutic strategies

Kidney injury is one of the main complications of obstructive jaundice (OJ) and its pathogenesis has not been clarified. As an independent risk factor for OJ associated with significant morbidity and mortality, it can be mainly divided into two types of morphological injury and functional injury. We called these dysfunctions caused by OJ-induced kidney injury as OJKI. However, the etiology of OJKI is still not fully clear, and research studies on how OJKI becomes a facilitated factor of OJ are limited. This article reviews the underlying pathological mechanism from five aspects, including metabolisms of bile acids, hemodynamic disturbances, oxidative stress, inflammation and the organic transporter system. Some nephrotoxic drugs and measures that can enhance or reduce the renal function with potential intervention in perioperative periods to alleviate the incidence of OJKI were also described. Furthermore, a more in-depth study on the pathogenesis of OJKI from multiple aspects for exploring more targeted treatment measures were further put forward, which may provide new methods for the prevention and treatment of clinical OJKI and improve the prognosis.

Obstructive jaundice induced kidney damage is mediated by down-regulation of bile acid receptors FXR and TGR5

AIM

To investigate the changes in the expression of bile acid receptors FXR and TGR5 in obstructive jaundice (OJ) induced renal injury.

METHODS

Twelve male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into two groups to undergo either sham operation (CON) or bile duct ligation (BDL). The animals were operated by surgical ligation of the common bile duct to establish an OJ model. Two weeks post operation, serum samples were collected to assess renal associated biochemical markers including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bile acid (TBA), total bilirubin (TBIL), direct bilirubin (DBIL), serum urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Cr), and uric acid (UA). In addition, the urine of the rats was collected for urine chemistry analysis. Transcription and translation of FXR and TGR5 genes were detected by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. Tissue sections of the kidneys were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and examined for microscopically pathological changes.

RESULTS

Compared with the CON group, the protein and mRNA expression of FXR and TGR5 was significantly decreased in the kidneys of the BDL rats. HE staining revealed that the kidneys of the BDL rats had decreased glomerular density and the local epithelial cells of the tubules shed. Also, the small tube lacuna was expanded, accompanied with the presence of a large number of unstructured substances.

CONCLUSION

This in vivo study demonstrated significant down-regulation of the bile acid receptors FXR and TGR5 in the kidneys of OJ rats, suggesting their role in kidney damage.

Modulation of the intestinal bile acid/farnesoid X receptor/fibroblast growth factor 15 axis improves alcoholic liver disease in mice

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is associated with changes in the intestinal microbiota. Functional consequences of alcohol-associated dysbiosis are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to identify a mechanism of how changes in the intestinal microbiota contribute to ALD. Metagenomic sequencing of intestinal contents demonstrated that chronic ethanol feeding in mice is associated with an over-representation of bacterial genomic DNA encoding choloylglycine hydrolase, which deconjugates bile acids in the intestine. Bile acid analysis confirmed an increased amount of unconjugated bile acids in the small intestine after ethanol administration. Mediated by a lower farnesoid X receptor (FXR) activity in enterocytes, lower fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-15 protein secretion was associated with increased hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme (Cyp)-7a1 protein expression and circulating bile acid levels. Depletion of the commensal microbiota with nonabsorbable antibiotics attenuated hepatic Cyp7a1 expression and reduced ALD in mice, suggesting that increased bile acid synthesis is dependent on gut bacteria. To restore intestinal FXR activity, we used a pharmacological intervention with the intestine-restricted FXR agonist fexaramine, which protected mice from ethanol-induced liver injury. Whereas bile acid metabolism was only minimally altered, fexaramine treatment stabilized the gut barrier and significantly modulated hepatic genes involved in lipid metabolism. To link the beneficial metabolic effect to FGF15, a nontumorigenic FGF19 variant-a human FGF15 ortholog-was overexpressed in mice using adeno-associated viruses. FGF19 treatment showed similarly beneficial metabolic effects and ameliorated alcoholic steatohepatitis.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, alcohol-associated metagenomic changes result in alterations of bile acid profiles. Targeted interventions improve bile acid-FXR-FGF15 signaling by modulation of hepatic Cyp7a1 and lipid metabolism, and reduce ethanol-induced liver disease in mice. (Hepatology 2018;67:2150-2166).

Organic Solute Transporter α-β Protects Ileal Enterocytes From Bile Acid-Induced Injury

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Ileal bile acid absorption is mediated by uptake via the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT), and export via the basolateral heteromeric organic solute transporter α-β (OSTα-OSTβ). In this study, we investigated the cytotoxic effects of enterocyte bile acid stasis in Ostα-/- mice, including the temporal relationship between intestinal injury and initiation of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids.

METHODS

Ileal tissue morphometry, histology, markers of cell proliferation, gene, and protein expression were analyzed in male and female wild-type and Ostα-/- mice at postnatal days 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30. Ostα-/-Asbt-/- mice were generated and analyzed. Bile acid activation of intestinal Nrf2-activated pathways was investigated in Drosophila.

RESULTS

As early as day 5, Ostα-/- mice showed significantly increased ileal weight per length, decreased villus height, and increased epithelial cell proliferation. This correlated with premature expression of the Asbt and induction of bile acid-activated farnesoid X receptor target genes in neonatal Ostα-/- mice. Expression of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase-1 and Nrf2-anti-oxidant responsive genes were increased significantly in neonatal Ostα-/- mice at these postnatal time points. Bile acids also activated Nrf2 in Drosophila enterocytes and enterocyte-specific knockdown of Nrf2 increased sensitivity of flies to bile acid-induced toxicity. Inactivation of the Asbt prevented the changes in ileal morphology and induction of anti-oxidant response genes in Ostα-/- mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Early in postnatal development, loss of Ostα leads to bile acid accumulation, oxidative stress, and a restitution response in ileum. In addition to its essential role in maintaining bile acid homeostasis, Ostα-Ostβ functions to protect the ileal epithelium against bile acid-induced injury. NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus: GSE99579.

NOD2 gene variants confer risk for secondary sclerosing cholangitis in critically ill patients

Sclerosing cholangitis in critically ill patients (SC-CIP) is a progressive cholestatic disease of unknown aetiology characterized by chronic biliary infections. Hence we hypothesized that common NOD2 (nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain containing 2) gene variants, known risk factors for Crohn's disease and bacterial translocation in liver cirrhosis, increase the odds of developing SC-CIP. Screening of 4,641 endoscopic retrograde cholangiography procedures identified 17 patients with SC-CIP, who were then genotyped for the three common NOD2 mutations (Cohort 1, discovery cohort). To validate the association, we subsequently tested these NOD2 variants in 29 patients from SC-CIP cohorts of three additional medical centers (Cohort 2, replication cohort). In Cohort 1, the NOD2 variants were present in 5 of 17 SC-CIP patients (29.4%), which is twice the frequency of the general population. These results were replicated in Cohort 2 with 8 patients (27.6%) showing NOD2 mutations. In contrast, polymorphisms of hepatocanalicular transporter genes did not have major impact on SC-CIP risk. This first study on genetic susceptibility in SC-CIP patients shows an extraordinary high frequency of NOD2 variation, pointing to a critical role of inherited impaired anti-bacterial defense in the development of this devastating biliary disease.

Genetic and epigenetic regulation of intestinal fibrosis

Crohn's disease affects those individuals with polygenic risk factors. The identified risk loci indicate that the genetic architecture of Crohn's disease involves both innate and adaptive immunity and the response to the intestinal environment including the microbiome. Genetic risk alone, however, predicts only 25% of disease, indicating that other factors, including the intestinal environment, can shape the epigenome and also confer heritable risk to patients. Patients with Crohn's disease can have purely inflammatory disease, penetrating disease or fibrostenosis. Analysis of the genetic risk combined with epigenetic marks of Crohn's disease and other disease associated with organ fibrosis reveals common events are affecting the genes and pathways key to development of fibrosis. This review will focus on what is known about the mechanisms by which genetic and epigenetic risk factors determine development of fibrosis in Crohn's disease and contrast that with other fibrotic conditions.

Hydrogen-rich saline protects against mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in mice with obstructive jaundice

Previous studies have demonstrated that hydrogen-rich saline (HS) protects against bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced liver injury by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation. Mitochondria, which are targets of excessive reactive oxygen species and central mediators of apoptosis, have a pivotal role in hepatic injury during obstructive jaundice (OJ); however, the implications of HS in the hepatic mitochondria of BDL mice remain unknown. The present study investigated the hypothesis that HS could reduce OJ‑induced liver injury through the protection of mitochondrial structure and function, as well as inhibition of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into three experimental groups: Sham operation group, BDL injury with normal saline (NS) treatment group, and BDL‑injury with HS treatment group. Mitochondrial damage and apoptotic parameters were determined 3 days post‑BDL injury and treatment. The results demonstrated that mitochondria isolated from the livers of NS-treated BDL mice exhibited increased mitochondrial swelling, cytochrome c release, and oxidative damage. In addition, liver samples from NS‑treated BDL mice exhibited significant increases in B‑cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2)‑associated X protein expression, caspase activities, and hepatocyte apoptosis compared with livers from sham‑operated controls. Notably, treatment with HS reduced the levels of these markers and alleviated morphological defects in the mitochondria following injury. In addition, HS markedly increased the antioxidant potential of mitochondria, as evidenced by elevated adenosine triphosphate levels, mitochondrial respiratory function, and increased levels of active Bcl‑2. In conclusion, HS attenuates mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction, and inhibits mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis in the livers of BDL mice.

Deficiency of intestinal mucin-2 protects mice from diet-induced fatty liver disease and obesity

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and obesity are characterized by altered gut microbiota, inflammation, and gut barrier dysfunction. Here, we investigated the role of mucin-2 (Muc2) as the major component of the intestinal mucus layer in the development of fatty liver disease and obesity. We studied experimental fatty liver disease and obesity induced by feeding wild-type and Muc2-knockout mice a high-fat diet (HFD) for 16 wk. Muc2 deficiency protected mice from HFD-induced fatty liver disease and obesity. Compared with wild-type mice, after a 16-wk HFD, Muc2-knockout mice exhibited better glucose homeostasis, reduced inflammation, and upregulated expression of genes involved in lipolysis and fatty acid β-oxidation in white adipose tissue. Compared with wild-type mice that were fed the HFD as well, Muc2-knockout mice also displayed higher intestinal and plasma levels of IL-22 and higher intestinal levels of the IL-22 target genes Reg3b and Reg3g. Our findings indicate that absence of the intestinal mucus layer activates the mucosal immune system. Higher IL-22 levels protect mice from diet-induced features of the metabolic syndrome.

Molecular activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in fibrosis: common threads linking divergent fibrogenic diseases

SIGNIFICANCE

Over the past 10 years, there has been a plethora of investigations centering on the NLRP3 inflammasome and its role in fibrosis and other disease pathologies. To date, the signaling pathways from the inflammasome to myofibroblast differentiation and chronic collagen synthesis have not been fully elucidated, and many questions are left to be answered.

RECENT ADVANCES

Recent studies have demonstrated the significant and critical role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium signaling in the assembly of the inflammasome, and this may result in autocrine signaling maintaining the myofibroblast phenotype, leading to fibrotic disease.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Traditionally, myofibroblasts under tight regulation aid in wound healing and then, once the wound has closed, undergo apoptosis and the collagen in the wound remodels. During fibrosis, however, the myofibroblast maintains an activated state via a chronically activated inflammasome, leading to the continual synthesis of collagens and other extracellular matrix proteins that result in damage to the tissue or organ. The mechanism that is driving this abnormality has not been fully elucidated.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

However, studies have been conducted to suggest that modulating the calcium or the ROS axis may be of therapeutic value in regulating inflammasome activation. A number of novel drugs are currently being developed that may prove beneficial to patients suffering from fibrotic diseases.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone regulates hepatic bile acid homeostasis via SREBP-2/HNF-4α/CYP7A1 axis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Bile acids (BAs) play a crucial role in dietary fat digestion and in the regulation of lipid, glucose, and energy metabolism. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that directly regulates several metabolic pathways. However, the impact of TSH on BA homeostasis remains largely unknown.

METHODS

We analyzed serum BA and TSH levels in healthy volunteers under strict control of caloric intake. Thyroidectomized rats were administered thyroxine and injected with different doses of TSH. Tshr(-/-) mice were supplemented with thyroxine, and C57BL/6 mice were injected with Tshr-siRNA via the tail vein. The serum BA levels, BA pool size, and fecal BA excretion rate were measured. The regulation of SREBP-2, HNF-4α, and CYP7A1 by TSH were analyzed using luciferase reporter, RNAi, EMSA, and CHIP assays.

RESULTS

A negative correlation was observed between the serum levels of TSH and the serum BA levels in healthy volunteers. TSH administration led to a decrease in BA content and CYP7A1 activity in thyroidectomized rats supplemented with thyroxine. When Tshr was silenced in mice, the BA pool size, fecal BA excretion rate, and serum BA levels all increased. Additionally, we found that HNF-4α acts as a critical molecule through which TSH represses CYP7A1 activity. We further confirmed that the accumulation of mature SREBP-2 protein could impair the capacity of nuclear HNF-4α to bind to the CYP7A1 promoter, a mechanism that appears to mediate the effects of TSH.

CONCLUSIONS

TSH represses hepatic BA synthesis via a SREBP-2/HNF-4α/CYP7A1 signaling pathway. This finding strongly supports the notion that TSH is an important pathophysiological regulator of liver BA homeostasis independently of thyroid hormones.

Commensal microbiota is hepatoprotective and prevents liver fibrosis in mice

Translocation of bacteria and their products across the intestinal barrier is common in patients with liver disease, and there is evidence that experimental liver fibrosis depends on bacterial translocation. The purpose of our study was to investigate liver fibrosis in conventional and germ-free (GF) C57BL/6 mice. Chronic liver injury was induced by administration of thioacetamide (TAA) in the drinking water for 21 wk or by repeated intraperitoneal injections of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Increased liver fibrosis was observed in GF mice compared with conventional mice. Hepatocytes showed more toxin-induced oxidative stress and cell death. This was accompanied by increased activation of hepatic stellate cells, but hepatic mediators of inflammation were not significantly different. Similarly, a genetic model using Myd88/Trif-deficient mice, which lack downstream innate immunity signaling, had more severe fibrosis than wild-type mice. Isolated Myd88/Trif-deficient hepatocytes were more susceptible to toxin-induced cell death in culture. In conclusion, the commensal microbiota prevents fibrosis upon chronic liver injury in mice. This is the first study describing a beneficial role of the commensal microbiota in maintaining liver homeostasis and preventing liver fibrosis.

Intestinal transport and metabolism of bile acids

In addition to their classical roles as detergents to aid in the process of digestion, bile acids have been identified as important signaling molecules that function through various nuclear and G protein-coupled receptors to regulate a myriad of cellular and molecular functions across both metabolic and nonmetabolic pathways. Signaling via these pathways will vary depending on the tissue and the concentration and chemical structure of the bile acid species. Important determinants of the size and composition of the bile acid pool are their efficient enterohepatic recirculation, their host and microbial metabolism, and the homeostatic feedback mechanisms connecting hepatocytes, enterocytes, and the luminal microbiota. This review focuses on the mammalian intestine, discussing the physiology of bile acid transport, the metabolism of bile acids in the gut, and new developments in our understanding of how intestinal metabolism, particularly by the gut microbiota, affects bile acid signaling.