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Tomizawa Y, Nakatsukasa M, Ponce de León MS, Zollikofer CPE, Morimoto N. Shaft structure of the first metatarsal contains a strong phylogenetic signal in apes and humans. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 185:e24987. [PMID: 38922796 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Metatarsal bones constitute a key functional unit of the foot in primates. While the form-function relationships of metatarsals have been extensively studied, particularly in relation to the loss of the grasping ability of the foot in humans in contrast to apes, the effect of phyletic history on the metatarsal morphology and its variability remains largely unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS Here, we evaluate how the strength of the phylogenetic signal varies from the first to the fifth metatarsal in humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons, and Japanese macaques. We use computed tomography imaging and morphometric mapping to quantify the second moment of area around and along the metatarsal shaft and evaluate the strength of the phylogenetic signal with multivariate K-statistics. RESULTS The shaft structure of the first metatarsal, but not the others, correlates well with the phylogeny of apes and humans. DISCUSSION Given the importance of the first metatarsal for grasping and bipedal/quadrupedal locomotion, the strong phylogenetic but weak functional signal in its structure is unexpected. These findings suggest that the evolutionary diversification of hominoid locomotor behaviors, including human bipedality, is only partly reflected in form-function relationships of key skeletal elements, and that phylogenetic history acted as a major evolutionary constraint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Tomizawa
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masato Nakatsukasa
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | | | - Naoki Morimoto
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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2
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Russo GA, Prang TC, McGechie FR, Kuo S, Ward CV, Feibel C, Nengo IO. An ape partial postcranial skeleton (KNM-NP 64631) from the Middle Miocene of Napudet, northern Kenya. J Hum Evol 2024; 192:103519. [PMID: 38843697 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2024.103519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
An ape partial postcranial skeleton (KNM-NP 64631) was recovered during the 2015-2021 field seasons at Napudet, a Middle Miocene (∼13 Ma) locality in northern Kenya. Bony elements representing the shoulder, elbow, hip, and ankle joints, thoracic and lumbar vertebral column, and hands and feet, offer valuable new information about the body plan and positional behaviors of Middle Miocene apes. Body mass estimates from femoral head dimensions suggest that the KNM-NP 64631 individual was smaller-bodied (c. 13-17 kg) than some Miocene taxa from eastern Africa, including Ekembo nyanzae, and probably Equatorius africanus or Kenyapithecus wickeri, and was more comparable to smaller-bodied male Nacholapithecus kerioi individuals. Similar to many Miocene apes, the KNM-NP 64631 individual had hip and hallucal tarsometatarsal joints reflecting habitual hindlimb loading in a variety of postures, a distal tibia with a large medial malleolus, an inflated humeral capitulum, probably a long lumbar spine, and a long pollical proximal phalanx relative to femoral head dimensions. The KNM-NP 64631 individual departs from most Early Miocene apes in its possession of a more steeply beveled radial head and deeper humeral zona conoidea, reflecting enhanced supinating-pronating abilities at the humeroradial joint. The KNM-NP 64631 individual also differs from Early Miocene Ekembo heseloni in having a larger elbow joint (inferred from radial head size) relative to the mediolateral width of the lumbar vertebral bodies and a more asymmetrical talar trochlea, and in these ways recalls inferred joint proportions for, and talocrural morphology of, N. kerioi. Compared to most Early Miocene apes, the KNM-NP 64631 individual likely relied on more forelimb-dominated arboreal behaviors, perhaps including vertical climbing (e.g., extended elbow, hoisting). Moreover, the Napudet ape partial postcranial skeleton suggests that an arboreally adapted body plan characterized by relatively large (here, based on joint size) forelimbs, but lacking orthograde suspensory adaptations, may not have been 'unusual' among Middle Miocene apes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Russo
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.
| | - Thomas C Prang
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Faye R McGechie
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix 475 N 5th St, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Sharon Kuo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Duluth, MN 55802, USA; Technological Primates Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carol V Ward
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, M263 Medical Sciences Building, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA; Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Craig Feibel
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, Busch Campus, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, Douglass Campus, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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Young MW, English HM, Dickinson E, Kantounis SJ, Chernik ND, Cannata MJ, Lynch SK, Jacobson RN, Virga JQ, Lopez A, Granatosky MC. Comparative kinetics of humans and non-human primates during vertical climbing. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb247012. [PMID: 38426398 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.247012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Climbing represents a critical behavior in the context of primate evolution. However, anatomically modern human populations are considered ill-suited for climbing. This adaptation can be attributed to the evolution of striding bipedalism, redirecting anatomical traits away from efficient climbing. Although prior studies have speculated on the kinetic consequences of this anatomical reorganization, there is a lack of data on the force profiles of human climbers. This study utilized high-speed videography and force plate analysis to assess single limb forces during climbing from 44 human participants of varying climbing experience and compared these data with climbing data from eight species of non-human primates (anthropoids and strepsirrhines). Contrary to expectations, experience level had no significant effect on the magnitude of single limb forces in humans. Experienced climbers did, however, demonstrate a predictable relationship between center of mass position and peak normal forces, suggesting a better ability to modulate forces during climbing. Humans exhibited significantly higher peak propulsive forces in the hindlimb compared with the forelimb and greater hindlimb dominance overall compared with non-human primates. All species sampled demonstrated exclusively tensile forelimbs and predominantly compressive hindlimbs. Strepsirrhines exhibited a pull-push transition in normal forces, while anthropoid primates, including humans, did not. Climbing force profiles are remarkably stereotyped across humans, reflecting the universal mechanical demands of this form of locomotion. Extreme functional differentiation between forelimbs and hindlimbs in humans may help to explain the evolution of bipedalism in ancestrally climbing hominoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody W Young
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Hannah M English
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Stratos J Kantounis
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Noah D Chernik
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Matthew J Cannata
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Samantha K Lynch
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Reuben N Jacobson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - James Q Virga
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Alexander Lopez
- School of Health Professions, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
- Inclusive Sports and Fitness, Holbrook, NY 11741, USA
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
- Center for Biomedical Innovation, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
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Komza K, Viola B, Netten T, Schroeder L. Morphological integration in the hominid midfoot. J Hum Evol 2022; 170:103231. [PMID: 35940157 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The calculation of morphological integration across living apes and humans may provide important insights into the potential influence of integration on evolutionary trajectories in the hominid lineage. Here, we quantify magnitudes of morphological integration among and within elements of the midfoot in great apes and humans to examine the link between locomotor differences and trait covariance. We test the hypothesis that the medial elements of the great ape foot are less morphologically integrated with one another compared to humans based on their abducted halluces, and aim to determine how adaptations for midfoot mobility/stiffness and locomotor specialization influence magnitudes of morphological integration. The study sample is composed of all cuneiforms, the navicular, the cuboid, and metatarsals 1-5 of Homo sapiens (n = 80), Pan troglodytes (n = 63), Gorilla gorilla (n = 39), and Pongo sp. (n = 41). Morphological integration was quantified using the integration coefficient of variation of interlandmark distances organized into sets of a priori-defined modules. Magnitudes of integration across these modules were then compared against sets of random traits from the whole midfoot. Results show that all nonhuman apes have less integrated medial elements, whereas humans have highly integrated medial elements, suggesting a link between hallucal abduction and reduced levels of morphological integration. However, we find considerable variation in magnitudes of morphological integration across metatarsals 2-5, the intermediate and lateral cuneiform, the cuboid, and navicular, emphasizing the influence of functional and nonfunctional factors in magnitudes of integration. Lastly, we find that humans and orangutans show the lowest overall magnitudes of integration in the midfoot, which may be related to their highly specialized functions, and suggest a link between strong diversifying selection and reduced magnitudes of morphological integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Komza
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2S2, Canada.
| | - Bence Viola
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2S2, Canada
| | - Teagan Netten
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2S2, Canada
| | - Lauren Schroeder
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada; Human Evolution Research Institute, Department of Anthropology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
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Marchi D, Rimoldi A, García‐Martínez D, Bastir M. Morphological correlates of distal fibular morphology with locomotion in great apes, humans, and Australopithecus afarensis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2022; 178:286-300. [PMID: 36790753 PMCID: PMC9314891 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Recent studies highlighted the importance of the fibula to further our understanding of locomotor adaptations in fossil hominins. In this study, we present a three-dimensional geometric morphometric (3D-GM) investigation of the distal fibula in extant hominids and Australopithecus afarensis with the aim of pointing out morphological correlations to arboreal behavior. METHODS Three-dimensional surface meshes of the distal fibula were obtained using computer tomography for 40 extant hominid specimens and laser scanner for five A. afarensis specimens. Distal fibula morphology was quantified positioning 11 fixed landmarks, 40 curve semilandmarks, and 20 surface landmarks on each specimen. A generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) was carried out on all landmark coordinates followed by Procrustes ANOVA. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the GPA-aligned shape coordinates. Kruskal-Wallis tests and Mann-Whitney test were performed on scores along PCs. RESULTS Great apes are characterized by a shorter subcutaneous triangular surface (STS), more downward facing fibulotalar articular facets, more anteriorly facing lateral malleolus and wider/deeper malleolar fossa than humans. Within great apes, orangutans are characterized by more medially facing fibulotalar articular facets. Australopithecus afarensis shows a unique distal fibular morphology with several traits that are generally associated more to arboreality and less to bipedalism such as a short STS, a more anteriorly facing, laterally pointing malleolus and deeper and larger malleolar fossa. CONCLUSIONS The distal fibula morphology is indicative of locomotor patterns within extant hominids. The 3D-GM method presented here can be successfully used to further our understanding of arboreal adaptations in fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damiano Marchi
- Department of BiologyUniversity of PisaPisa
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human JourneyUniversity of the WitwatersrandWits
| | | | - Daniel García‐Martínez
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human JourneyUniversity of the WitwatersrandWits
- Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH)BurgosSpain
- Paleoanthropology GroupMuseo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN‐CSIC)MadridSpain
| | - Markus Bastir
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human JourneyUniversity of the WitwatersrandWits
- Paleoanthropology GroupMuseo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN‐CSIC)MadridSpain
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Harper CM, Ruff CB, Sylvester AD. Scaling and relative size of the human, nonhuman ape, and baboon calcaneus. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:100-122. [PMID: 33843151 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Among human and nonhuman apes, calcaneal morphology exhibits significant variation that has been related to locomotor behavior. Due to its role in weight-bearing, however, both body size and locomotion may impact calcaneal morphology. Determining how calcaneal morphologies vary as a function of body size is thus vital to understanding calcaneal functional adaptation. Here, we study calcaneus allometry and relative size in humans (n = 120) and nonhuman primates (n = 278), analyzing these relationships in light of known locomotor behaviors. Twelve linear measures and three articular facet surface areas were collected on calcaneus surface models. Body mass was estimated using femoral head superoinferior breadth. Relationships between calcaneal dimensions and estimated body mass were analyzed across the sample using phylogenetic least squares regression analyses (PGLS). Differences between humans and pooled nonhuman primates were tested using RMA ANCOVAs. Among (and within) genera residual differences from both PGLS regressions and isometry were analyzed using ANOVAs with post hoc multiple comparison tests. The relationships between all but two calcaneus dimensions and estimated body mass exhibit phylogenetic signal at the smallest taxonomic scale. This signal disappears when reanalyzed at the genus level. Calcaneal morphology varies relative to both body size and locomotor behavior. Humans have larger calcanei for estimated body mass relative to nonhuman primates as a potential adaptation for bipedalism. More terrestrial taxa exhibit longer calcaneal tubers for body mass, increasing the triceps surae lever arm. Among nonhuman great apes, more arboreal taxa have larger cuboid facet surface areas for body mass, increasing calcaneocuboid mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Harper
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Camden, New Jersey, USA
| | - Christopher B Ruff
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Adam D Sylvester
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Chaney ME, Ruiz CA, Meindl RS, Lovejoy CO. The foot of the human-chimpanzee last common ancestor was not African ape-like: A response to Prang (2019). J Hum Evol 2021; 164:102940. [PMID: 33441261 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Morgan E Chaney
- Department of Anthropology & School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA.
| | - Cody A Ruiz
- Department of Anthropology & School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - Richard S Meindl
- Department of Anthropology & School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - C Owen Lovejoy
- Department of Anthropology & School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
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Harper CM, Ruff CB, Sylvester AD. Gorilla calcaneal morphological variation and ecological divergence. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:49-65. [PMID: 32871028 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The primate foot has been extensively investigated because of its role in weight-bearing; however, the calcaneus has been relatively understudied. Here we examine entire gorilla calcaneal external shape to understand its relationship with locomotor behavior. MATERIALS AND METHODS Calcanei of Gorilla gorilla gorilla (n = 43), Gorilla beringei graueri (n = 20), and Gorilla beringei beringei (n = 15) were surface or micro-CT scanned. External shape was analyzed through a three-dimensional geometric morphometric sliding semilandmark analysis. Semilandmarks were slid relative to an updated Procrustes average in order to minimize the bending energy of the thin plate spline interpolation function. Shape variation was summarized using principal components analysis of shape coordinates. Procrustes distances between taxa averages were calculated and resampling statistics run to test pairwise differences. Linear measures were collected and regressed against estimated body mass. RESULTS All three taxa exhibit statistically different morphologies (p < .001 for pairwise comparisons). G. g. gorilla demonstrates an anteroposteriorly elongated calcaneus with a deeper cuboid pivot region and mediolaterally flatter posterior talar facet. G. b. beringei possesses the flattest cuboid and most medially-angled posterior talar facets. G. b. graueri demonstrates intermediate articular facet morphology, a medially-angled tuberosity, and an elongated peroneal trochlea. DISCUSSION Articular facet differences separate gorillas along a locomotor gradient. G. g. gorilla is adapted for arboreality with greater joint mobility, while G. b. beringei is adapted for more stereotypical loads associated with terrestriality. G. b. graueri's unique posterolateral morphology may be due to a secondary transition to greater arboreality from a more terrestrial ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Harper
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Christopher B Ruff
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Adam D Sylvester
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Yu G, Fan Y, Fan Y, Li R, Liu Y, Antonijevic D, Milovanovic P, Zhang B, Li Z, Djuric M, Fan Y. The Role of Footwear in the Pathogenesis of Hallux Valgus: A Proof-of-Concept Finite Element Analysis in Recent Humans and Homo naledi. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:648. [PMID: 32714903 PMCID: PMC7343976 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallux valgus (HV), the bunion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ), bothers many adults. No consensus has been reached about the causes of HV, be it a hereditary, or acquired, or multifactorial disease. Nor has agreement been reached using MTPJ angle to assess HV based on X-ray because in most cases the assessment of MTPJ is not reliable as it depends on the posture during scanning. In this study, we assume that HV is predominately acquired and that shoe wearing per se is an important player in HV pathogenesis. To verify our hypothesis, a CT-based finite element (FE) model of the first MTPJ of fossil remains of bear-footed Homo naledi was created and compared to that of five contemporary shoe-wearing wrestlers (10 models from two scans at an interval of about 18 months) because Homo naledi's first MTPJ is an ideal model for non-shoe wearing with parallel sesamoid grooves. We developed the first MTPJ structure transformation method and created MTPJ joint capsule model for both Homo naledi and wrestlers. Constraint on the medial side of the first MTPJ capsule was set to simulate shoe-wearing conditions compared to the lack of medial constraint for barefooted conditions. Analysis of eight FE models of different angles for the first MTPJ of Homo naledi was performed by the first MTPJ transformation method and results showed that stress concentrated on the medial capsule of the first MTPJ in simulated shoe-wearing conditions, even at MTPJ angle of 0°. Increase in the first MTPJ angle further increased stress concentration on the medial side, and stress-growth relationship might reveal the causes of HV. We further developed a method to position the first MTPJ in wrestlers and created CT-based models at two time points. It was evident that the first MTPJ angle increased in all but one athlete, with a maximal increase of 4.03 degrees. This verifies our hypothesis that HV might be developed by wearing shoes. Further longitudinal studies with larger sample sizes are needed to additionally validate our results and determine the magnitude of the effects of shoe wearing on development and progression of HV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genyu Yu
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yuzhou Fan
- Shenzhen Tourism College, Jinan University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuxuan Fan
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Ruining Li
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yaming Liu
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Djordje Antonijevic
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China.,Laboratory for Atomics Physics, Institute for Nuclear Sciences "Vinca", University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Petar Milovanovic
- Laboratory for Anthropology, School of Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Bo Zhang
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Zhiyu Li
- College of Foreign Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Marija Djuric
- Laboratory for Anthropology, School of Medicine, Institute of Anatomy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Yifang Fan
- Foot Research Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Sport and Health Science of Fujian Province, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, China
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Zeininger A, Schmitt D, Wunderlich RE. Mechanics of heel-strike plantigrady in African apes. J Hum Evol 2020; 145:102840. [PMID: 32652258 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The initiation of a walking step with a heel strike is a defining characteristic of humans and great apes but is rarely found in other mammals. Despite the considerable importance of heel strike to an understanding of human locomotor evolution, no one has explicitly tested the fundamental mechanical question of why great apes use a heel strike. In this report, we test two hypotheses (1) that heel strike is a function of hip protraction and/or knee extension and (2) that short-legged apes with a midfoot that dorsiflexes at heel lift and long digits for whom digitigrady is not an option use heel-strike plantigrady. This strategy increases hip translation while potentially moderating the cost of redirecting the center of mass ('collisional costs') during stance via rollover along the full foot from the heel to toes. We quantified hind limb kinematics and relative hip translation in ten species of primates, including lemurs, terrestrial and arboreal monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas. Chimpanzees and gorillas walked with relatively extended knees but only with moderately protracted hips or hind limbs, partially rejecting the first hypothesis. Nonetheless, chimpanzees attained relative hip translations comparable with those of digitigrade primates. Heel-strike plantigrady may be a natural result of a need for increased hip translations when forelimbs are relatively long and digitigrady is morphologically restricted. In addition, foot rollover from the heel to toe in large, short-legged apes may reduce energetic costs of redirecting the center of mass at the step-to-step transition as it appears to do in humans. Heel strike appears to have been an important mechanism for increasing hip translation, and possibly reducing energetic costs, in early hominins and was fundamental to the evolution of the modern human foot and human bipedalism.
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11
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Patel BA, Orr CM, Jashashvili T. Strength properties of extant hominoid hallucal and pollical metapodials. J Hum Evol 2020; 143:102774. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Morphometric analysis of the hominin talus: Evolutionary and functional implications. J Hum Evol 2020; 142:102747. [PMID: 32240884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of bipedalism is a key benchmark in human evolution that has impacted talar morphology. Here, we investigate talar morphological variability in extinct and extant hominins using a 3D geometric morphometric approach. The evolutionary timing and appearance of modern human-like features and their contributions to bipedal locomotion were evaluated on the talus as a whole, each articular facet separately, and multiple combinations of facets. Distinctive suites of features are consistently present in all fossil hominins, despite the presence of substantial interspecific variation, suggesting a potential connection of these suites to bipedal gait. A modern human-like condition evolved in navicular and lateral malleolar facets early in the hominin lineage compared with other facets, which demonstrate more complex morphological variation within Homininae. Interestingly, navicular facet morphology of Australopithecus afarensis is derived in the direction of Homo, whereas more recent hominin species such as Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus sediba retain more primitive states in this facet. Combining the navicular facet with the trochlea and the posterior calcaneal facet as a functional suite, however, distinguishes Australopithecus from Homo in that the medial longitudinal arch had not fully developed in the former. Our results suggest that a more everted foot and stiffer medial midtarsal region are adaptations that coincide with the emergence of bipedalism, whereas a high medial longitudinal arch emerges later in time, within Homo. This study provides novel insights into the emergence of talar morphological traits linked to bipedalism and its transition from a facultative to an obligate condition.
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Marchi D, Harper C, Chirchir H, Ruff C. Relative fibular strength and locomotor behavior in KNM-WT 15000 and OH 35. J Hum Evol 2019; 131:48-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Komza K, Skinner MM. First metatarsal trabecular bone structure in extant hominoids and Swartkrans hominins. J Hum Evol 2019; 131:1-21. [PMID: 31182196 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Changes in first metatarsal (MT1) morphology within the hominin clade are crucial for reconstructing the evolution of a forefoot adapted for human-like gait. Studies of the external morphology of the MT1 in humans, non-human apes, and fossil hominins have documented changes in its robusticity, epiphyseal shape and its articulation with the medial cuneiform. Here, we test whether trabecular structure in the MT1 reflects different loading patterns in the forefoot across extant large apes and humans, and within this comparative context, infer locomotor behavior in two fossil hominins from Swartkrans, South Africa. Microtomographic scans were collected from the MT1 of Pongo sp. (n = 6), Gorilla gorilla (n = 10), Pan troglodytes (n = 10), Homo sapiens (n = 11), as well as SKX 5017 (Paranthropus robustus), and SK 1813 (Hominin gen. sp. indet.). Trabecular structure was quantified within the head and base using a 'whole-epiphysis' approach with medtool 4.2. We found that modern humans displayed relatively higher bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the dorsal region of each epiphysis and a higher overall degree of anisotropy (DA), whereas great apes showed higher BV/TV in the plantar regions, reflecting dorsiflexion at the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint in the former and plantarflexion in the latter. Both fossils displayed low DA, with SKX 5017 showing a hyper-dorsal concentration of trabecular bone in the head (similar to humans), while SK 1813 showed a more central trabecular distribution not seen in either humans or non-human apes. Additionally, we found differences between non-human apes, modern humans, and the fossil taxa in trabecular spacing (Tb.Sp.), number (Tb.N.), and thickness (Tb.th.). While low DA in both fossils suggests increased mobility of the MT1, differences in their trabecular distributions could indicate variable locomotion in these Pleistocene hominins (recognizing that the juvenile status of SK 1813 is a potential confounding factor). In particular, evidence for consistent loading in hyper-dorsiflexion in SKX 5017 would suggest locomotor behaviors beyond human-like toe off during terrestrial locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Komza
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Canada; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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HIGURASHI YASUO, GOTO RYOSUKE, NAKANO YOSHIHIKO. Integrative experimental and morphological study of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the Japanese macaque ( Macaca fuscata). ANTHROPOL SCI 2019. [DOI: 10.1537/ase.190511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- YASUO HIGURASHI
- Laboratory of System Physiology, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi
- Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita
| | - RYOSUKE GOTO
- Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita
| | - YOSHIHIKO NAKANO
- Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita
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DeSilva J, McNutt E, Benoit J, Zipfel B. One small step: A review of Plio‐Pleistocene hominin foot evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168 Suppl 67:63-140. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy DeSilva
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Ellison McNutt
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
| | - Julien Benoit
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Bernhard Zipfel
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
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17
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Hirasaki E, Oishi M. Arrangement of foot interosseous muscles in African great apes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:924-929. [PMID: 30302746 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The dorsal interossei of the human foot are arranged so that they abduct the digits around the second digit, while those of non-hominoid anthropoid primates are mostly arranged around the third or fourth digit. This is thought to relate to the medial shift in the functional axis, an essential modification in the evolution of the human foot. However, studies of the arrangement of interosseous muscles are relatively limited and there is some debate about their arrangement in great apes. In particular, some researchers claim that the interossei of chimpanzees are arranged around the second digit, whereas others claim that their foot axis lies on the third digit. MATERIALS AND METHODS We examined the arrangement of the foot interosseous muscles in ten chimpanzees, one bonobo, and three gorillas. RESULTS The interossei were arranged around the second digit in two chimpanzees, one bonobo, and one gorilla, whereas the third digit was the axis in the other specimens. DISCUSSIONS The variation observed suggests that the arrangement of the interosseous muscles of the great apes is in a transitional condition from monkey-type to human-type. Considering that osteological and foot pressure research supports the idea that the foot axis is on the second digit in great apes, modification in the interosseous muscles appears to lag behind modification in the metatarsals and foot motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eishi Hirasaki
- Section of Evolutionary Morphology, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| | - Motoharu Oishi
- Laboratory of Anatomy 1, Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
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Holowka NB, Lieberman DE. Rethinking the evolution of the human foot: insights from experimental research. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:221/17/jeb174425. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.174425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Adaptive explanations for modern human foot anatomy have long fascinated evolutionary biologists because of the dramatic differences between our feet and those of our closest living relatives, the great apes. Morphological features, including hallucal opposability, toe length and the longitudinal arch, have traditionally been used to dichotomize human and great ape feet as being adapted for bipedal walking and arboreal locomotion, respectively. However, recent biomechanical models of human foot function and experimental investigations of great ape locomotion have undermined this simple dichotomy. Here, we review this research, focusing on the biomechanics of foot strike, push-off and elastic energy storage in the foot, and show that humans and great apes share some underappreciated, surprising similarities in foot function, such as use of plantigrady and ability to stiffen the midfoot. We also show that several unique features of the human foot, including a spring-like longitudinal arch and short toes, are likely adaptations to long distance running. We use this framework to interpret the fossil record and argue that the human foot passed through three evolutionary stages: first, a great ape-like foot adapted for arboreal locomotion but with some adaptations for bipedal walking; second, a foot adapted for effective bipedal walking but retaining some arboreal grasping adaptations; and third, a human-like foot adapted for enhanced economy during long-distance walking and running that had lost its prehensility. Based on this scenario, we suggest that selection for bipedal running played a major role in the loss of arboreal adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Daniel E. Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Canington SL, Sylvester AD, Burgess ML, Junno J, Ruff CB. Long bone diaphyseal shape follows different ontogenetic trajectories in captive and wild gorillas. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:366-376. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L. Canington
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland
| | - Adam D. Sylvester
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland
| | - M. Loring Burgess
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland
| | | | - Christopher B. Ruff
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore Maryland
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20
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Inter-ray variation in metatarsal strength properties in humans and African apes: Implications for inferring bipedal biomechanics in the Olduvai Hominid 8 foot. J Hum Evol 2018; 121:147-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Yammine K. The Relationship Between Digit Independence and Digital Sesamoids in Humans and a Proposal of a New Digital Sesamoid Evolutionary Hypothesis. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1046-1060. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2017] [Revised: 10/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaissar Yammine
- The Foot & Hand Clinic and The Center for Evidence-based Anatomy, Jdeideh Highway; Beirut Lebanon
- Lebanese American University Medical Center-Rizk Hospital; Achrafieh Lebanon
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Patel BA, Organ JM, Jashashvili T, Bui SH, Dunsworth HM. Ontogeny of hallucal metatarsal rigidity and shape in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). J Anat 2018; 232:39-53. [PMID: 29098692 PMCID: PMC5735049 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Life history variables including the timing of locomotor independence, along with changes in preferred locomotor behaviors and substrate use during development, influence how primates use their feet throughout ontogeny. Changes in foot function during development, in particular the nature of how the hallux is used in grasping, can lead to different structural changes in foot bones. To test this hypothesis, metatarsal midshaft rigidity [estimated from the polar second moment of area (J) scaled to bone length] and cross-sectional shape (calculated from the ratio of maximum and minimum second moments of area, Imax /Imin ) were examined in a cross-sectional ontogenetic sample of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta; n = 73) and common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; n = 79). Results show the hallucal metatarsal (Mt1) is relatively more rigid (with higher scaled J-values) in younger chimpanzees and macaques, with significant decreases in relative rigidity in both taxa until the age of achieving locomotor independence. Within each age group, Mt1 rigidity is always significantly higher in chimpanzees than macaques. When compared with the lateral metatarsals (Mt2-5), the Mt1 is relatively more rigid in both taxa and across all ages; however, this difference is significantly greater in chimpanzees. Length and J scale with negative allometry in all metatarsals and in both species (except the Mt2 of chimpanzees, which scales with positive allometry). Only in macaques does Mt1 midshaft shape significantly change across ontogeny, with older individuals having more elliptical cross-sections. Different patterns of development in metatarsal diaphyseal rigidity and shape likely reflect the different ways in which the foot, and in particular the hallux, functions across ontogeny in apes and monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biren A. Patel
- Department of Integrative Anatomical SciencesKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Human and Evolutionary Biology SectionDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Jason M. Organ
- Department of Anatomy and Cell BiologyIndiana University School of MedicineIndianapolisINUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringIndiana University – Purdue University IndianapolisIndianapolisINUSA
| | - Tea Jashashvili
- Molecular Imaging CenterDepartment of RadiologyKeck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
- Department of Geology and PaleontologyGeorgian National MuseumTbilisiGeorgia
| | - Stephanie H. Bui
- Human and Evolutionary Biology SectionDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - Holly M. Dunsworth
- Department of Sociology and AnthropologyUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRIUSA
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Samuel DS, Nauwelaerts S, Stevens JMG, Kivell TL. Hand pressures during arboreal locomotion in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). J Exp Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.170910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Evolution of the human hand has undergone a transition from use during locomotion to use primarily for manipulation. Previous comparative morphological and biomechanical studies have focused on potential changes in manipulative abilities during human hand evolution, but few have focused on functional signals for arboreal locomotion. Here, we provide this comparative context though the first analysis of hand loading in captive bonobos during arboreal locomotion. We quantify pressure experienced by the fingers, palm and thumb in bonobos during vertical locomotion, suspension and arboreal knuckle-walking. Results show that pressure experienced by the fingers is significantly higher during knuckle-walking compared with similar pressures experienced by the fingers and palm during suspensory and vertical locomotion. Peak pressure is most often experienced at or around the third digit in all locomotor modes. Pressure quantified for the thumb is either very low or absent, despite the thumb making contact with the substrate during all suspensory and vertical locomotor trials. Unlike chimpanzees, the bonobos do not show a rolling pattern of digit contact with the substrate during arboreal knuckle-walking but, instead, digits 3 and 4 typically touch down first and digit 5 almost always made contact with the substrate. These results have implications for interpreting extant and fossilised hand morphology; we expect bonobo (and chimpanzee) bony morphology to primarily reflect the biomechanical loading of knuckle-walking, while functional signals for arboreal locomotion in fossil hominins are most likely to appear in the fingers, particularly digit 3, and least likely to appear in the morphology of the thumb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana S. Samuel
- Animal Postcranial Evolution (APE) Lab, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK
| | - Sandra Nauwelaerts
- Laboratory for Functional morphology, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Centre for Research and Conservation (CRC), Koningin Astridplein 20-26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Centre for Research and Conservation (CRC), Koningin Astridplein 20-26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
- Behavioral Ecology and Ecophysiology group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Animal Postcranial Evolution (APE) Lab, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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