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Maillard JY, Pascoe M. Disinfectants and antiseptics: mechanisms of action and resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol 2024; 22:4-17. [PMID: 37648789 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-023-00958-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Chemical biocides are used for the prevention and control of infection in health care, targeted home hygiene or controlling microbial contamination for various industrial processes including but not limited to food, water and petroleum. However, their use has substantially increased since the implementation of programmes to control outbreaks of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridioides difficile and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Biocides interact with multiple targets on the bacterial cells. The number of targets affected and the severity of damage will result in an irreversible bactericidal effect or a reversible bacteriostatic one. Most biocides primarily target the cytoplasmic membrane and enzymes, although the specific bactericidal mechanisms vary among different biocide chemistries. Inappropriate usage or low concentrations of a biocide may act as a stressor while not killing bacterial pathogens, potentially leading to antimicrobial resistance. Biocides can also promote the transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes. In this Review, we explore our current understanding of the mechanisms of action of biocides, the bacterial resistance mechanisms encompassing both intrinsic and acquired resistance and the influence of bacterial biofilms on resistance. We also consider the impact of bacteria that survive biocide exposure in environmental and clinical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Yves Maillard
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Wales, UK.
| | - Michael Pascoe
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Wales, UK
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Dergham Y, Le Coq D, Bridier A, Sanchez-Vizuete P, Jbara H, Deschamps J, Hamze K, Yoshida KI, Noirot-Gros MF, Briandet R. Bacillus subtilis NDmed, a model strain for biofilm genetic studies. Biofilm 2023; 6:100152. [PMID: 37694162 PMCID: PMC10485040 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2023.100152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus subtilis strain NDmed was isolated from an endoscope washer-disinfector in a medical environment. NDmed can form complex macrocolonies with highly wrinkled architectural structures on solid medium. In static liquid culture, it produces thick pellicles at the interface with air as well as remarkable highly protruding ''beanstalk-like'' submerged biofilm structures at the solid surface. Since these mucoid submerged structures are hyper-resistant to biocides, NDmed has the ability to protect pathogens embedded in mixed-species biofilms by sheltering them from the action of these agents. Additionally, this non-domesticated and highly biofilm forming strain has the propensity of being genetically manipulated. Due to all these properties, the NDmed strain becomes a valuable model for the study of B. subtilis biofilms. This review focuses on several studies performed with NDmed that have highlighted the sophisticated genetic dynamics at play during B. subtilis biofilm formation. Further studies in project using modern molecular tools of advanced technologies with this strain, will allow to deepen our knowledge on the emerging properties of multicellular bacterial life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine Dergham
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Lebanese University, Faculty of Science, 1003 Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Dominique Le Coq
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Arnaud Bridier
- Fougères Laboratory, Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Anses, 35300, Fougères, France
| | - Pilar Sanchez-Vizuete
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Hadi Jbara
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Julien Deschamps
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Kassem Hamze
- Lebanese University, Faculty of Science, 1003 Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Ken-ichi Yoshida
- Department of Science, Technology and Innovation, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | | | - Romain Briandet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Dergham Y, Le Coq D, Nicolas P, Bidnenko E, Dérozier S, Deforet M, Huillet E, Sanchez-Vizuete P, Deschamps J, Hamze K, Briandet R. Direct comparison of spatial transcriptional heterogeneity across diverse Bacillus subtilis biofilm communities. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7546. [PMID: 37985771 PMCID: PMC10661151 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43386-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis can form various types of spatially organised communities on surfaces, such as colonies, pellicles and submerged biofilms. These communities share similarities and differences, and phenotypic heterogeneity has been reported for each type of community. Here, we studied spatial transcriptional heterogeneity across the three types of surface-associated communities. Using RNA-seq analysis of different regions or populations for each community type, we identified genes that are specifically expressed within each selected population. We constructed fluorescent transcriptional fusions for 17 of these genes, and observed their expression in submerged biofilms using time-lapse confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). We found mosaic expression patterns for some genes; in particular, we observed spatially segregated cells displaying opposite regulation of carbon metabolism genes (gapA and gapB), indicative of distinct glycolytic or gluconeogenic regimes coexisting in the same biofilm region. Overall, our study provides a direct comparison of spatial transcriptional heterogeneity, at different scales, for the three main models of B. subtilis surface-associated communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine Dergham
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Lebanese University, Faculty of Science, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Dominique Le Coq
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Pierre Nicolas
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, MAIAGE, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Elena Bidnenko
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Sandra Dérozier
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, MAIAGE, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Maxime Deforet
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine, Laboratoire Jean Perrin, Paris, France
| | - Eugénie Huillet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Pilar Sanchez-Vizuete
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Julien Deschamps
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Kassem Hamze
- Lebanese University, Faculty of Science, Beirut, Lebanon.
| | - Romain Briandet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France.
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Maillard JY, Centeleghe I. How biofilm changes our understanding of cleaning and disinfection. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2023; 12:95. [PMID: 37679831 PMCID: PMC10483709 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-023-01290-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilms are ubiquitous in healthcare settings. By nature, biofilms are less susceptible to antimicrobials and are associated with healthcare-associated infections (HAI). Resistance of biofilm to antimicrobials is multifactorial with the presence of a matrix composed of extracellular polymeric substances and eDNA, being a major contributing factor. The usual multispecies composition of environmental biofilms can also impact on antimicrobial efficacy. In healthcare settings, two main types of biofilms are present: hydrated biofilms, for example, in drains and parts of some medical devices and equipment, and environmental dry biofilms (DSB) on surfaces and possibly in medical devices. Biofilms act as a reservoir for pathogens including multi-drug resistant organisms and their elimination requires different approaches. The control of hydrated (drain) biofilms should be informed by a reduction or elimination of microbial bioburden together with measuring biofilm regrowth time. The control of DSB should be measured by a combination of a reduction or elimination in microbial bioburden on surfaces together with a decrease in bacterial transfer post-intervention. Failure to control biofilms increases the risk for HAI, but biofilms are not solely responsible for disinfection failure or shortcoming. The limited number of standardised biofilm efficacy tests is a hindrance for end users and manufacturers, whilst in Europe there are no approved standard protocols. Education of stakeholders about biofilms and ad hoc efficacy tests, often academic in nature, is thus paramount, to achieve a better control of biofilms in healthcare settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Yves Maillard
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Redwood Building, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3NB, Wales, UK.
| | - Isabella Centeleghe
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Redwood Building, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3NB, Wales, UK
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Coombs K, Rodriguez-Quijada C, Clevenger JO, Sauer-Budge AF. Current Understanding of Potential Linkages between Biocide Tolerance and Antibiotic Cross-Resistance. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2000. [PMID: 37630560 PMCID: PMC10459251 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobials (e.g., antibiotics and biocides) are invaluable chemicals used to control microbes in numerous contexts. Because of the simultaneous use of antibiotics and biocides, questions have arisen as to whether environments commonly treated with biocides (e.g., hospitals, food processing, wastewater, agriculture, etc.) could act as a reservoir for the development of antibiotic cross-resistance. Theoretically, cross-resistance could occur if the mechanism of bacterial tolerance to biocides also resulted in antibiotic resistance. On the other hand, biocides would likely present a higher evolutionary barrier to the development of resistance given the different modes of action between biocides and antibiotics and the broad-based physicochemical effects associated with most biocides. Published studies have shown that the induction of biocide tolerance in a laboratory can result in cross-resistance to some antibiotics, most commonly hypothesized to be due to efflux pump upregulation. However, testing of environmental isolates for biocide tolerance and antibiotic cross-resistance has yielded conflicting results, potentially due to the lack of standardized testing. In this review, we aim to describe the state of the science on the potential linkage between biocide tolerance and antibiotic cross-resistance. Questions still remain about whether the directed evolution of biocide tolerance and the associated antibiotic cross-resistance in a laboratory are or are not representative of real-world settings. Thus, research should continue to generate informative data to guide policies and preserve these tools' utility and availability.
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Verdial C, Serrano I, Tavares L, Gil S, Oliveira M. Mechanisms of Antibiotic and Biocide Resistance That Contribute to Pseudomonas aeruginosa Persistence in the Hospital Environment. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11041221. [PMID: 37189839 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11041221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen responsible for multiple hospital- and community-acquired infections, both in human and veterinary medicine. P. aeruginosa persistence in clinical settings is worrisome and is a result of its remarkable flexibility and adaptability. This species exhibits several characteristics that allow it to thrive under different environmental conditions, including the ability to colonize inert materials such as medical equipment and hospital surfaces. P. aeruginosa presents several intrinsic mechanisms of defense that allow it to survive external aggressions, but it is also able to develop strategies and evolve into multiple phenotypes to persevere, which include antimicrobial-tolerant strains, persister cells, and biofilms. Currently, these emergent pathogenic strains are a worldwide problem and a major concern. Biocides are frequently used as a complementary/combination strategy to control the dissemination of P. aeruginosa-resistant strains; however, tolerance to commonly used biocides has also already been reported, representing an impediment to the effective elimination of this important pathogen from clinical settings. This review focuses on the characteristics of P. aeruginosa responsible for its persistence in hospital environments, including those associated with its antibiotic and biocide resistance ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Verdial
- Gato Escondido-Veterinary Clinic, Av. Bombeiros Voluntários n°22B, 2950-209 Palmela, Portugal
| | - Isa Serrano
- CIISA-Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luís Tavares
- CIISA-Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Solange Gil
- CIISA-Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Manuela Oliveira
- CIISA-Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
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Milton ME, Cavanagh J. The Biofilm Regulatory Network from Bacillus subtilis: A Structure-Function Analysis. J Mol Biol 2023; 435:167923. [PMID: 36535428 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial biofilms are notorious for their ability to protect bacteria from environmental challenges, most importantly the action of antibiotics. Bacillus subtilis is an extensively studied model organism used to understand the process of biofilm formation. A complex network of principal regulatory proteins including Spo0A, AbrB, AbbA, Abh, SinR, SinI, SlrR, and RemA, work in concert to transition B. subtilis from the free-swimming planktonic state to the biofilm state. In this review, we explore, connect, and summarize decades worth of structural and biochemical studies that have elucidated this protein signaling network. Since structure dictates function, unraveling aspects of protein molecular mechanisms will allow us to devise ways to exploit critical features of the biofilm regulatory pathway, such as possible therapeutic intervention. This review pools our current knowledge base of B. subtilis biofilm regulatory proteins and highlights potential therapeutic intervention points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan E Milton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, NC 27834, USA.
| | - John Cavanagh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, NC 27834, USA.
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Centeleghe I, Norville P, Hughes L, Maillard JY. Dual species dry surface biofilms; Bacillus species impact on Staphylococcus aureus survival and surface disinfection. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:1130-1140. [PMID: 35543339 PMCID: PMC9543557 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Aims Dry surface biofilms (DSB) survive on environmental surfaces throughout hospitals, able to resist cleaning and disinfection interventions. This study aimed to produce a dual species DSB and explore the ability of commercially available wipe products to eliminate pathogens within a dual species DSB and prevent their transfer. Methods and Results Staphylococcus aureus was grown with two different species of Bacillus on stainless steel discs, over 12 days using sequential hydration and dehydration phases. A modified version of ASTM 2967–15 was used to test six wipe products including one water control with the Fitaflex Wiperator. Staphylococcus aureus growth was inhibited when combined with Bacillus subtilis. Recovery of S. aureus on agar from a dual DSB was not always consistent. Our results did not provide evidence that Bacillus licheniformis protected S. aureus from wipe action. There was no significant difference of S. aureus elimination by antimicrobial wipes between single and dual species DSB. B. licheniformis was easily transferred by the wipe itself and to new surfaces both in a single and dual species DSB, whilst several wipe products inhibited the transfer of S. aureus from wipe. However, S. aureus direct transfer to new surfaces was not inhibited post‐wiping. Conclusions Although we observed that the dual DSB did not confer protection of S. aureus, we demonstrated that environmental species can persist on surfaces after disinfection treatment. Industries should test DSB against future products and hospitals should consider carefully the products they choose. Significance and Impact of the Study To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting on the production of a dual species DSB. Multispecies DSB have been identified throughout the world on hospital surfaces, but many studies focus on single species biofilms. This study has shown that DSB behave differently to hydrated biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Centeleghe
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales
| | - Phillip Norville
- GAMA Healthcare Ltd., Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Hughes
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales
| | - Jean-Yves Maillard
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales
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Sanchez-Vizuete P, Dergham Y, Bridier A, Deschamps J, Dervyn E, Hamze K, Aymerich S, Le Coq D, Briandet R. The coordinated population redistribution between Bacillus subtilis submerged biofilm and liquid-air pellicle. Biofilm 2022; 4:100065. [PMID: 35024609 PMCID: PMC8732777 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2021.100065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis is a widely used bacterial model to decipher biofilm formation, genetic determinants and their regulation. For several years, studies were conducted on colonies or pellicles formed at the interface with air, but more recent works showed that non-domesticated strains were able to form thick and structured biofilms on submerged surfaces. Taking advantage of time-lapse confocal laser scanning microscopy, we monitored bacterial colonization on the surface and observed an unexpected biphasic submerged biofilm development. Cells adhering to the surface firstly form elongated chains before being suddenly fragmented and released as free motile cells in the medium. This switching coincided with an oxygen depletion in the well which preceded the formation of the pellicle at the liquid-air interface. Residual bacteria still associated with the solid surface at the bottom of the well started to express matrix genes under anaerobic metabolism to build the typical biofilm protruding structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Sanchez-Vizuete
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Yasmine Dergham
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.,Faculty of Science, Lebanese University, 1003, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Arnaud Bridier
- Fougères Laboratory, Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Anses, 35300, Fougères, France
| | - Julien Deschamps
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Etienne Dervyn
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Kassem Hamze
- Faculty of Science, Lebanese University, 1003, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Stéphane Aymerich
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Dominique Le Coq
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.,Université Paris-Saclay, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Romain Briandet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Berry G, Parsons A, Morgan M, Rickert J, Cho H. A review of methods to reduce the probability of the airborne spread of COVID-19 in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 203:111765. [PMID: 34331921 PMCID: PMC8317458 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
COVID-19 forced the human population to rethink its way of living. The threat posed by the potential spread of the virus via an airborne transmission mode through ventilation systems in buildings and enclosed spaces has been recognized as a major concern. To mitigate this threat, researchers have explored different technologies and methods that can remove or decrease the concentration of the virus in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces. Although many technologies and methods have already been researched, some are currently available on the market, but their effectiveness and safety concerns have not been fully investigated. To acquire a broader view and collective perspective of the current research and development status, this paper discusses a comprehensive review of various workable technologies and methods to combat airborne viruses, e.g., COVID-19, in ventilation systems and enclosed spaces. These technologies and methods include an increase in ventilation, high-efficiency air filtration, ionization of the air, environmental condition control, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, non-thermal plasma and reactive oxygen species, filter coatings, chemical disinfectants, and heat inactivation. Research gaps have been identified and discussed, and recommendations for applying such technologies and methods have also been provided in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gentry Berry
- Institute for Clean Energy Technology, Mississippi State University, 205 Research Blvd, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA
| | - Adam Parsons
- Institute for Clean Energy Technology, Mississippi State University, 205 Research Blvd, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA
| | - Matthew Morgan
- Institute for Clean Energy Technology, Mississippi State University, 205 Research Blvd, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA
| | - Jaime Rickert
- Institute for Clean Energy Technology, Mississippi State University, 205 Research Blvd, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA
| | - Heejin Cho
- Institute for Clean Energy Technology, Mississippi State University, 205 Research Blvd, Starkville, MS, 39759, USA.
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Assessment of alkylimidazolium chloride ionic liquid formulations for cleaning and disinfection of environmental surfaces. Am J Infect Control 2021; 50:1032-1037. [PMID: 34971712 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2021.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surface disinfection is fundamental to good environmental hygiene and preventing infections. Development of newer formulations that can effectively kill and remove microorganisms from the surfaces is desired. METHODS Here, we assessed the efficacy of 1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [C16MIM][Cl] ionic liquid (IL) and its formulation in ethanol for killing and removing bacteria from different environmental surfaces. Efficacy of IL and its formulation was determined on known monospecies bacterial cultures and unknown multispecies bacterial cultures on environmental surfaces. RESULT The surface disinfection efficacy of [C16MIM][Cl] was concentration dependent and achieved 41 to 100% reduction in total viable bacterial counts of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria at varied concentrations. The treatment of wooden surface with 0.1% [C16MIM][Cl] caused 98% reduction in bacterial load within 20 s contact time as against mere 45% reduction (20 s) with 70% ethanol. Antibacterial and surface disinfection activities of [C16MIM][Cl] have increased markedly when prepared in 70% ethanol, suggesting synergistic activity. A formulation comprising of 0.01% [C16MIM][Cl] in 70% ethanol showed effective surface disinfection and achieved 95% to 98% reduction in bacterial load on different surfaces. CONCLUSION Ionic liquids are potent candidates for disinfection of environmental surfaces.
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12
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Dergham Y, Sanchez-Vizuete P, Le Coq D, Deschamps J, Bridier A, Hamze K, Briandet R. Comparison of the Genetic Features Involved in Bacillus subtilis Biofilm Formation Using Multi-Culturing Approaches. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9030633. [PMID: 33803642 PMCID: PMC8003051 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Surface-associated multicellular assemblage is an important bacterial trait to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Bacillus subtilis is one of the most studied Gram-positive bacteria, serving as a model for the study of genetic pathways involved in the different steps of 3D biofilm formation. B. subtilis biofilm studies have mainly focused on pellicle formation at the air-liquid interface or complex macrocolonies formed on nutritive agar. However, only few studies focus on the genetic features of B. subtilis submerged biofilm formation and their link with other multicellular models at the air interface. NDmed, an undomesticated B. subtilis strain isolated from a hospital, has demonstrated the ability to produce highly structured immersed biofilms when compared to strains classically used for studying B. subtilis biofilms. In this contribution, we have conducted a multi-culturing comparison (between macrocolony, swarming, pellicle, and submerged biofilm) of B. subtilis multicellular communities using the NDmed strain and mutated derivatives for genes shown to be required for motility and biofilm formation in pellicle and macrocolony models. For the 15 mutated NDmed strains studied, all showed an altered phenotype for at least one of the different culture laboratory assays. Mutation of genes involved in matrix production (i.e., tasA, epsA-O, cap, ypqP) caused a negative impact on all biofilm phenotypes but favored swarming motility on semi-solid surfaces. Mutation of bslA, a gene coding for an amphiphilic protein, affected the stability of the pellicle at the air-liquid interface with no impact on the submerged biofilm model. Moreover, mutation of lytF, an autolysin gene required for cell separation, had a greater effect on the submerged biofilm model than that formed at aerial level, opposite to the observation for lytABC mutant. In addition, B. subtilis NDmed with sinR mutation formed wrinkled macrocolony, less than that formed by the wild type, but was unable to form neither thick pellicle nor structured submerged biofilm. The results are discussed in terms of the relevancy to determine whether genes involved in colony and pellicle formation also govern submerged biofilm formation, by regarding the specificities in each model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine Dergham
- Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; (Y.D.); (P.S.-V.); (D.L.C.); (J.D.)
- Faculty of Science, Lebanese University, 1003 Beirut, Lebanon;
| | - Pilar Sanchez-Vizuete
- Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; (Y.D.); (P.S.-V.); (D.L.C.); (J.D.)
| | - Dominique Le Coq
- Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; (Y.D.); (P.S.-V.); (D.L.C.); (J.D.)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Julien Deschamps
- Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; (Y.D.); (P.S.-V.); (D.L.C.); (J.D.)
| | - Arnaud Bridier
- Fougères Laboratory, Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Anses, 35300 Fougères, France;
| | - Kassem Hamze
- Faculty of Science, Lebanese University, 1003 Beirut, Lebanon;
| | - Romain Briandet
- Micalis Institute, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; (Y.D.); (P.S.-V.); (D.L.C.); (J.D.)
- Correspondence:
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13
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Klebsiella pneumoniae survival and regrowth in endoscope channel biofilm exposed to glutaraldehyde and desiccation. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 39:1129-1136. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-020-03818-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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14
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Vasiljevic ZZ, Dojcinovic MP, Krstic JB, Ribic V, Tadic NB, Ognjanovic M, Auger S, Vidic J, Nikolic MV. Synthesis and antibacterial activity of iron manganite (FeMnO3) particles against the environmental bacterium Bacillus subtilis. RSC Adv 2020; 10:13879-13888. [PMID: 35492976 PMCID: PMC9051578 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra01809k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron manganite (FeMnO3) particles express antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, together with H2O2 release and Fe, Mn-ion release in LB bacterial medium.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jugoslav B. Krstic
- Department of Catalysis and Chemical Engineering
- Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy
- University of Belgrade
- Belgrade
- Serbia
| | - Vesna Ribic
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research
- University of Belgrade
- Belgrade
- Serbia
| | | | - Milos Ognjanovic
- Institute of Nuclear Sciences Vinca
- University of Belgrade
- Belgrade
- Serbia
| | - Sandrine Auger
- Micalis Institute
- INRA
- AgroParisTech
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Jouy-en-Josas
| | - Jasmina Vidic
- Micalis Institute
- INRA
- AgroParisTech
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Jouy-en-Josas
| | - Maria Vesna Nikolic
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research
- University of Belgrade
- Belgrade
- Serbia
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15
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Milton ME, Draughn GL, Bobay BG, Stowe SD, Olson AL, Feldmann EA, Thompson RJ, Myers KH, Santoro MT, Kearns DB, Cavanagh J. The Solution Structures and Interaction of SinR and SinI: Elucidating the Mechanism of Action of the Master Regulator Switch for Biofilm Formation in Bacillus subtilis. J Mol Biol 2019; 432:343-357. [PMID: 31493408 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria have developed numerous protection strategies to ensure survival in harsh environments, with perhaps the most robust method being the formation of a protective biofilm. In biofilms, bacterial cells are embedded within a matrix that is composed of a complex mixture of polysaccharides, proteins, and DNA. The gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis has become a model organism for studying regulatory networks directing biofilm formation. The phenotypic transition from a planktonic to biofilm state is regulated by the activity of the transcriptional repressor, SinR, and its inactivation by its primary antagonist, SinI. In this work, we present the first full-length structural model of tetrameric SinR using a hybrid approach combining high-resolution solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), chemical cross-linking, mass spectrometry, and molecular docking. We also present the solution NMR structure of the antagonist SinI dimer and probe the mechanism behind the SinR-SinI interaction using a combination of biochemical and biophysical techniques. As a result of these findings, we propose that SinI utilizes a residue replacement mechanism to block SinR multimerization, resulting in diminished DNA binding and concomitant decreased repressor activity. Finally, we provide an evidence-based mechanism that confirms how disruption of the SinR tetramer by SinI regulates gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan E Milton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA
| | - G Logan Draughn
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Benjamin G Bobay
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA; Duke University NMR Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Sean D Stowe
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Andrew L Olson
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Erik A Feldmann
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Richele J Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA
| | - Katherine H Myers
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Michael T Santoro
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Daniel B Kearns
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - John Cavanagh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA.
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16
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Abstract
Biocides and formulated biocides are used worldwide for an increasing number of applications despite tightening regulations in Europe and in the United States. One concern is that such intense usage of biocides could lead to increased bacterial resistance to a product and cross-resistance to unrelated antimicrobials including chemotherapeutic antibiotics. Evidence to justify such a concern comes mostly from the use of health care-relevant bacterial isolates, although the number of studies of the resistance characteristics of veterinary isolates to biocides have increased the past few years. One problem remains the definition of "resistance" and how to measure resistance to a biocide. This has yet to be addressed globally, although the measurement of resistance is becoming more pressing, with regulators both in Europe and in the United States demanding that manufacturers provide evidence that their biocidal products will not impact on bacterial resistance. Alongside in vitro evidence of potential antimicrobial cross-resistance following biocide exposure, our understanding of the mechanisms of bacterial resistance and, more recently, our understanding of the effect of biocides to induce a mechanism(s) of resistance in bacteria has improved. This article aims to provide an understanding of the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria following a biocide exposure. The sections provide evidence of the occurrence of bacterial resistance and its mechanisms of action and debate how to measure bacterial resistance to biocides. Examples pertinent to the veterinary field are used where appropriate.
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17
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Wesgate R, Grasha P, Maillard JY. Use of a predictive protocol to measure the antimicrobial resistance risks associated with biocidal product usage. Am J Infect Control 2016; 44:458-64. [PMID: 26810885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In this study we assessed the propensity of biocide exposure in the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. METHODS Our protocol is based on reporting changes in established antimicrobial susceptibility profiles in biocides and antibiotics after during use exposure to a product. The during use exposure reflects worse conditions of product use during application. It differs from the term low concentration, which usually reflects a concentration below the minimal inhibitory concentration, but not necessarily a concentration that occurs in practice. RESULTS Our results showed that exposure to triclosan (0.0004%) was associated with a high risk of developing resistance and cross-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. This was not observed with exposure to chlorhexidine (0.00005%) or a hydrogen peroxide-based biocidal product (in during use conditions). Interestingly, exposure to a low concentration of hydrogen peroxide (0.001%) carried a risk of emerging resistance to antibiotics if the presence of the oxidizing agent was maintained. We observed a number of unstable clinical resistances to antibiotics after exposure to the cationic biocide and oxidizing agent, notably to tobramycin and ticarcillin-clavulanic acid. CONCLUSIONS Using a decision tree based on the change in antimicrobial susceptibility test results, we were able to provide information on the effect of biocide exposure on the development of bacterial resistance to antimicrobials. Such information should address the call from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and European Union Biocidal Products Regulation for manufacturers to provide information on antimicrobial resistance and cross-resistance in bacteria after the use of their product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Wesgate
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Jean-Yves Maillard
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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18
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Martin D, Wesgate R, Denyer S, McDonnell G, Maillard JY. Bacillus subtilis
vegetative isolate surviving chlorine dioxide exposure: an elusive mechanism of resistance. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:1541-51. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D.J.H. Martin
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Cardiff University; Cardiff UK
| | - R.L. Wesgate
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Cardiff University; Cardiff UK
| | - S.P. Denyer
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Cardiff University; Cardiff UK
| | | | - J.-Y. Maillard
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences; Cardiff University; Cardiff UK
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19
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Identification of ypqP as a New Bacillus subtilis biofilm determinant that mediates the protection of Staphylococcus aureus against antimicrobial agents in mixed-species communities. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 81:109-18. [PMID: 25326298 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02473-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In most habitats, microbial life is organized in biofilms, three-dimensional edifices sustained by extracellular polymeric substances that enable bacteria to resist harsh and changing environments. Under multispecies conditions, bacteria can benefit from the polymers produced by other species ("public goods"), thus improving their survival under toxic conditions. A recent study showed that a Bacillus subtilis hospital isolate (NDmed) was able to protect Staphylococcus aureus from biocide action in multispecies biofilms. In this work, we identified ypqP, a gene whose product is required in NDmed for thick-biofilm formation on submerged surfaces and for resistance to two biocides widely used in hospitals. NDmed and S. aureus formed mixed biofilms, and both their spatial arrangement and pathogen protection were mediated by YpqP. Functional ypqP is present in other natural B. subtilis biofilm-forming isolates. However, the gene is disrupted by the SPβ prophage in the weak submerged-biofilm-forming strains NCIB3610 and 168, which are both less resistant than NDmed to the biocides tested. Furthermore, in a 168 laboratory strain cured of the SPβ prophage, the reestablishment of a functional ypqP gene led to increased thickness and resistance to biocides of the associated biofilms. We therefore propose that YpqP is a new and important determinant of B. subtilis surface biofilm architecture, protection against exposure to toxic compounds, and social behavior in bacterial communities.
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20
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Genome Sequences of Two Nondomesticated Bacillus subtilis Strains Able To Form Thick Biofilms on Submerged Surfaces. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2014; 2:2/5/e00946-14. [PMID: 25291767 PMCID: PMC4175202 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00946-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Genomes of two nondomesticated strains of Bacillus subtilis subspecies subtilis, NDmed and NDfood, have been sequenced. Both strains form very thick and spatially complex biofilms on submerged surfaces. Moreover, biofilms of the NDmed isolate were shown to be highly resistant to antimicrobials action.
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21
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Kampf G, Fliss PM, Martiny H. Is peracetic acid suitable for the cleaning step of reprocessing flexible endoscopes? World J Gastrointest Endosc 2014; 6:390-406. [PMID: 25228941 PMCID: PMC4163721 DOI: 10.4253/wjge.v6.i9.390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The bioburden (blood, protein, pathogens and biofilm) on flexible endoscopes after use is often high and its removal is essential to allow effective disinfection, especially in the case of peracetic acid-based disinfectants, which are easily inactivated by organic material. Cleaning processes using conventional cleaners remove a variable but often sufficient amount of the bioburden. Some formulations based on peracetic acid are recommended by manufacturers for the cleaning step. We performed a systematic literature search and reviewed the available evidence to clarify the suitability of peracetic acid-based formulations for cleaning flexible endoscopes. A total of 243 studies were evaluated. No studies have yet demonstrated that peracetic acid-based cleaners are as effective as conventional cleaners. Some peracetic acid-based formulations have demonstrated some biofilm-cleaning effects and no biofilm-fixation potential, while others have a limited cleaning effect and a clear biofilm-fixation potential. All published data demonstrated a limited blood cleaning effect and a substantial blood and nerve tissue fixation potential of peracetic acid. No evidence-based guidelines on reprocessing flexible endoscopes currently recommend using cleaners containing peracetic acid, but some guidelines clearly recommend not using them because of their fixation potential. Evidence from some outbreaks, especially those involving highly multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens, indicated that disinfection using peracetic acid may be insufficient if the preceding cleaning step is not performed adequately. Based on this review we conclude that peracetic acid-based formulations should not be used for cleaning flexible endoscopes.
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22
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Harbarth S, Tuan Soh S, Horner C, Wilcox MH. Is reduced susceptibility to disinfectants and antiseptics a risk in healthcare settings? A point/counterpoint review. J Hosp Infect 2014; 87:194-202. [PMID: 24996517 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2014.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Given the breadth and depth of antiseptic use, it is surprising how few large-scale studies have been undertaken into the consequences of their use, particularly in clinical practice. Depending on your point of view, this may either reflect an assurance that reduced susceptibility to antiseptics, and notably whether this confers cross-resistance to systemically administered antimicrobial agents, is not an issue of concern, or relative ignorance about the potential threat. AIM This point/counterpoint review offers a differentiated perspective and possible answers to the question, 'Should we be worried about reduced susceptibility to disinfectants and antiseptics in healthcare settings?'. METHODS This topic was the subject of a debate by MHW (point) and SH (counterpoint) during the SHEA Spring Conference 2013: Advancing healthcare epidemiology and the role of the environment, held in Atlanta, GA, USA on 4(th) May 2013. This review is a general representation of the main themes presented during the debate, rather than a systematic review of the literature. FINDINGS There are examples of reduced susceptibility to antiseptics in clinical practice; however, to date, there is no strong evidence that reduced susceptibility to antiseptics is a major clinical problem. Given the growing number of potential indications for use of biocidal active ingredients, the potential for emergence of reduced susceptibility remains a concern. CONCLUSIONS Changes in the clinical use of antiseptics should be matched with surveillance studies to understand whether there are unintended microbiological or clinical consequences, including the selection of bacterial strains that can survive exposure to antiseptics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Harbarth
- Geneva University Hospitals and Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - C Horner
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - M H Wilcox
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
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23
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Vanysacker L, Bernshtein R, Vankelecom IF. Effect of chemical cleaning and membrane aging on membrane biofouling using model organisms with increasing complexity. J Memb Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2014.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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24
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Wessels S, Ingmer H. Modes of action of three disinfectant active substances: A review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2013; 67:456-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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25
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Bridier A, Meylheuc T, Briandet R. Realistic representation of Bacillus subtilis biofilms architecture using combined microscopy (CLSM, ESEM and FESEM). Micron 2013; 48:65-9. [PMID: 23517761 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2013.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this contribution, we used a set of microscopic techniques including confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) to analyze the three-dimensional spatial arrangement of cells and their surrounding matrix in Bacillus subtilis biofilm. The combination of the different techniques enabled a deeper and realistic deciphering of biofilm architecture by providing the opportunity to overcome the limits of each single technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bridier
- INRA, UMR 1319 Micalis, F-78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
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26
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Biofilms of a Bacillus subtilis hospital isolate protect Staphylococcus aureus from biocide action. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44506. [PMID: 22973457 PMCID: PMC3433435 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of a biofilm constitutes a survival strategy by providing bacteria a protective environment safe from stresses such as microbicide action and can thus lead to important health-care problems. In this study, biofilm resistance of a Bacillus subtilis strain (called hereafter NDmedical) recently isolated from endoscope washer-disinfectors to peracetic acid was investigated and its ability to protect the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus in mixed biofilms was evaluated. Biocide action within Bacillus subtilis biofilms was visualised in real time using a non-invasive 4D confocal imaging method. The resistance of single species and mixed biofilms to peracetic acid was quantified using standard plate counting methods and their architecture was explored using confocal imaging and electronic microscopy. The results showed that the NDmedical strain demonstrates the ability to make very large amount of biofilm together with hyper-resistance to the concentration of PAA used in many formulations (3500 ppm). Evidences strongly suggest that the enhanced resistance of the NDmedical strain was related to the specific three-dimensional structure of the biofilm and the large amount of the extracellular matrix produced which can hinder the penetration of peracetic acid. When grown in mixed biofilm with Staphylococcus aureus, the NDmedical strain demonstrated the ability to protect the pathogen from PAA action, thus enabling its persistence in the environment. This work points out the ability of bacteria to adapt to an extremely hostile environment, and the necessity of considering multi-organism ecosystems instead of single species model to decipher the mechanisms of biofilm resistance to antimicrobials agents.
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27
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Growth and identification of bacteria in N-halamine dental unit waterline tubing using an ultrapure water source. Int J Microbiol 2011; 2011:767314. [PMID: 22220171 PMCID: PMC3246724 DOI: 10.1155/2011/767314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined bacterial growth and type on biofilm-controlling dental unit waterline (DUWL) tubing (T) and control manufacturer's tubing (C) in a laboratory DUWL model using ultrapure source water that was cycled through the lines. Sections of tubing lines were detached and examined for biofilm growth using SEM imaging at six sampling periods. Bacteria from inside surfaces of T and C, source unit, and reservoir were cultured and enumerated. At six months, organisms were molecularly identified from the alignment matches obtained from the top three BLAST searches for the 16S region. There was a 1–3 log increase in organism growth in a clean, nonsterile reservoir within an hour. Biofilm was established on the inside surfaces of C within three weeks, but not on T. Proteobacteria, and Sphingomonas spp. were identified in the source reservoir and C line, and a variation of the genera was found in T line.
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28
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Bridier A, Briandet R, Thomas V, Dubois-Brissonnet F. Resistance of bacterial biofilms to disinfectants: a review. BIOFOULING 2011; 27:1017-32. [PMID: 22011093 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2011.626899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 525] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
A biofilm can be defined as a community of microorganisms adhering to a surface and surrounded by a complex matrix of extrapolymeric substances. It is now generally accepted that the biofilm growth mode induces microbial resistance to disinfection that can lead to substantial economic and health concerns. Although the precise origin of such resistance remains unclear, different studies have shown that it is a multifactorial process involving the spatial organization of the biofilm. This review will discuss the mechanisms identified as playing a role in biofilm resistance to disinfectants, as well as novel anti-biofilm strategies that have recently been explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bridier
- AgroParisTech, UMR MICALIS, F-91300 Massy, France
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29
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Bridier A, Briandet R, Thomas V, Dubois-Brissonnet F. Comparative biocidal activity of peracetic acid, benzalkonium chloride and ortho-phthalaldehyde on 77 bacterial strains. J Hosp Infect 2011; 78:208-13. [PMID: 21664534 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Despite numerous reports on biocide activities, it is often difficult to have a reliable and relevant overview of bacterial resistance to disinfectants because each work challenges a limited number of strains and tested methods are often different. The aim of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal activity of three different disinfectants commonly used in industrial or medical environments (peracetic acid, benzalkonium chloride and ortho-phthalaldehyde) against 77 bacterial strains from different origins using one standard test method (NF EN 1040). Results highlight the existence of high interspecific variability of resistance to disinfectants and, contrary to widespread belief, Gram-positive strains generally appeared more resistant than Gram-negative strains. Resistance was also variable among strains of the same species such as Bacillus subtilis to peracetic acid, Pseudomonas aeruginosa to benzalkonium chloride and Staphylococcus aureus to ortho-phthalaldehyde.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bridier
- AgroParisTech, UMR 1319 MICALIS, Massy, France
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30
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Bridier A, Le Coq D, Dubois-Brissonnet F, Thomas V, Aymerich S, Briandet R. The spatial architecture of Bacillus subtilis biofilms deciphered using a surface-associated model and in situ imaging. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16177. [PMID: 21267464 PMCID: PMC3022735 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of multicellular communities known as biofilms is the part of bacterial life cycle in which bacteria display cooperative behaviour and differentiated phenotypes leading to specific functions. Bacillus subtilis is a Gram-positive bacterium that has served for a decade as a model to study the molecular pathways that control biofilm formation. Most of the data on B. subtilis biofilms have come from studies on the formation of pellicles at the air-liquid interface, or on the complex macrocolonies that develop on semi-solid nutritive agar. Here, using confocal laser scanning microcopy, we show that B. subtilis strains of different origins are capable of forming biofilms on immersed surfaces with dramatically protruding "beanstalk-like" structures with certain strains. Indeed, these structures can reach a height of more than 300 µm with one undomesticated strain from a medical environment. Using 14 GFP-labeled mutants previously described as affecting pellicle or complex colony formation, we have identified four genes whose inactivation significantly impeded immersed biofilm development, and one mutation triggering hyperbiofilm formation. We also identified mutations causing the three-dimensional architecture of the biofilm to be altered. Taken together, our results reveal that B. subtilis is able to form specific biofilm features on immersed surfaces, and that the development of these multicellular surface-associated communities involves regulation pathways that are common to those governing the formation of pellicle and/or complex colonies, and also some specific mechanisms. Finally, we propose the submerged surface-associated biofilm as another relevant model for the study of B. subtilis multicellular communities.
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31
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Biofilm-forming bacteria with varying tolerance to peracetic acid from a paper machine. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 38:1379-90. [PMID: 21161323 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-010-0921-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms cause runnability problems in paper machines and are therefore controlled with biocides. Peracetic acid is usually effective in preventing bulky biofilms. This study investigated the microbiological status of a paper machine where low concentrations (≤ 15 ppm active ingredient) of peracetic acid had been used for several years. The paper machine contained a low amount of biofilms. Biofilm-forming bacteria from this environment were isolated and characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, whole-cell fatty acid analysis, biochemical tests, and DNA fingerprinting. Seventy-five percent of the isolates were identified as members of the subclades Sphingomonas trueperi and S. aquatilis, and the others as species of the genera Burkholderia (B. cepacia complex), Methylobacterium, and Rhizobium. Although the isolation media were suitable for the common paper machine biofoulers Deinococcus, Meiothermus, and Pseudoxanthomonas, none of these were found, indicating that peracetic acid had prevented their growth. Spontaneous, irreversible loss of the ability to form biofilm was observed during subculturing of certain isolates of the subclade S. trueperi. The Sphingomonas isolates formed monoculture biofilms that tolerated peracetic acid at concentrations (10 ppm active ingredient) used for antifouling in paper machines. High pH and low conductivity of the process waters favored the peracetic acid tolerance of Sphingomonas sp. biofilms. This appears to be the first report on sphingomonads as biofilm formers in warm water using industries.
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Haas JR. The potential feasibility of chlorinic photosynthesis on exoplanets. ASTROBIOLOGY 2010; 10:953-963. [PMID: 21118026 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2009.0364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The modern search for life-bearing exoplanets emphasizes the potential detection of O(2) and O(3) absorption spectra in exoplanetary atmospheres as ideal signatures of biology. However, oxygenic photosynthesis may not arise ubiquitously in exoplanetary biospheres. Alternative evolutionary paths may yield planetary atmospheres tinted with the waste products of other dominant metabolisms, including potentially exotic biochemistries. This paper defines chlorinic photosynthesis (CPS) as biologically mediated photolytic oxidation of aqueous Cl(-) to form halocarbon or dihalogen products, coupled with CO(2) assimilation. This hypothetical metabolism appears to be feasible energetically, physically, and geochemically, and could potentially develop under conditions that approximate the terrestrial Archean. It is hypothesized that an exoplanetary biosphere in which chlorinic photosynthesis dominates primary production would tend to evolve a strongly oxidizing, halogen-enriched atmosphere over geologic time. It is recommended that astronomical observations of exoplanetary outgoing thermal emission spectra consider signs of halogenated chemical species as likely indicators of the presence of a chlorinic biosphere. Planets that favor the evolution of CPS would probably receive equivalent or greater surface UV flux than is produced by the Sun, which would promote stronger abiotic UV photolysis of aqueous halides than occurred during Earth's Archean era and impose stronger evolutionary selection pressures on endemic life to accommodate and utilize halogenated compounds. Ocean-bearing planets of stars with metallicities equivalent to, or greater than, the Sun should especially favor the evolution of chlorinic biospheres because of the higher relative seawater abundances of Cl, Br, and I such planets would tend to host. Directed searches for chlorinic biospheres should probably focus on G0-G2, F, and A spectral class stars that have bulk metallicities of +0.0 Dex or greater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnson R Haas
- Department of Geosciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008, USA.
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Meyer B, Cookson B. Does microbial resistance or adaptation to biocides create a hazard in infection prevention and control? J Hosp Infect 2010; 76:200-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2010.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Maillard JY. Innate resistance to sporicides and potential failure to decontaminate. J Hosp Infect 2010; 77:204-9. [PMID: 20850897 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2010.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 06/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial spores are frequently intrinsically resistant to biocides and only a number of alkylating and oxidising biocides are sporicidal under certain conditions. Activity against spores is affected by several key factors such as concentration, exposure time, soiling, and the types of surface to be treated. Sporicidal efficacy is usually achieved after an exposure time of several minutes with a high concentration of a biocide. Failure to understand these factors will result in decreased sporicide activity and spore survival. Sporicides in healthcare settings are used for surface disinfection and for the high level disinfection of certain medical devices (e.g. endoscopes). With efficacy data in mind, sporicidal activity should be achieved for the disinfection of medical devices where both high concentration and long exposure time occur. However, for the disinfection of environmental surfaces, high concentration is not recommended, nor is long exposure time achievable. In this case, sporicidal activity is severely reduced and spore survival following treatment is to be expected and contributes to the explanation of spore persistence on surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-Y Maillard
- Welsh School of Pharmacy, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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Maillard JY, Cheeseman K. Response to: Price EH, Ayliffe G, ‘Hot hospitals and what happened to wash, rinse and dry? Recent changes to cleaning, disinfection and environmental ventilation’. J Hosp Infect 2008; 70:376-8; author reply 378-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2008.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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