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Senneby E, Holmberg A, Thörnqvist A, Fraenkel CJ. Decontamination of patient bathroom surfaces with 405 nm violet-blue light irradiation in a real-life setting. J Hosp Infect 2024:S0195-6701(24)00266-4. [PMID: 39098393 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2024.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Irradiation with violet-blue light (VBL), in the spectrum of 405-450 nm, has been reported to be effective against pathogenic bacteria. The aim of the present study was to investigate if VBL irradiation could reduce the level of surface contamination at seven shared patient's bathrooms in two wards at a hospital in Sweden. METHODS Repeated sampling of five separate surfaces (door handle, tap water handle, floor, toilet seat and toilet armrest) was performed in the bathrooms where 405 nm light-emitting diode spotlights had been installed. A prospective study with a cross-over design was carried out, which included two study periods, first with the spotlights either switched on or off and a second study period with the opposite spotlight status. RESULTS In total, 665 surface samples were collected during the study (133 samples per surface). Bacterial growth were found in 84 % of all samples. The most common findings were CoNS and Bacillus spp. The median cfu/cm2 was 15 (IQR 5-40) for all surfaces. In our main outcome, mean cfu/cm2 of all surfaces in a bathroom, no difference was observed with or without VBL. Clean surfaces (<5 cfu/cm2) were more commonly observed in bathrooms with VBL, also when controlling for confounding factors. No difference was observed in number of heavily contaminated surfaces. CONCLUSION We could not safely demonstrate an additive effect on bacterial surface levels when adding VBL to routine cleaning in shared patient bathrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Senneby
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden; Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infection Control and Prevention, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Anna Holmberg
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infection Control and Prevention, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden; Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Alexandra Thörnqvist
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infection Control and Prevention, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden
| | - Carl-Johan Fraenkel
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infection Control and Prevention, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden; Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Sinclair LG, Anderson JG, MacGregor SJ, Maclean M. Enhanced antimicrobial efficacy and energy efficiency of low irradiance 405-nm light for bacterial decontamination. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:276. [PMID: 38777923 PMCID: PMC11111507 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-03999-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Due to its increased safety over ultraviolet light, there is interest in the development of antimicrobial violet-blue light technologies for infection control applications. To ensure compatibility with exposed materials and tissue, the light irradiances and dose regimes used must be suitable for the target application. This study investigates the antimicrobial dose responses and germicidal efficiency of 405 nm violet-blue light when applied at a range of irradiance levels, for inactivation of surface-seeded and suspended bacteria. Bacteria were seeded onto agar surfaces (101-108 CFUplate-1) or suspended in PBS (103-109 CFUmL-1) and exposed to increasing doses of 405-nm light (≤ 288 Jcm-2) using various irradiances (0.5-150 mWcm-2), with susceptibility at equivalent light doses compared. Bacterial reductions ≥ 96% were demonstrated in all cases for lower irradiance (≤ 5 mWcm-2) exposures. Comparisons indicated, on a per unit dose basis, that significantly lower doses were required for significant reductions of all species when exposed at lower irradiances: 3-30 Jcm-2/0.5 mWcm-2 compared to 9-75 Jcm-2/50 mWcm-2 for low cell density (102 CFUplate-1) surface exposures and 22.5 Jcm-2/5 mWcm-2 compared to 67.5 Jcm-2/150 mWcm-2 for low density (103 CFUmL-1) liquid exposures (P ≤ 0.05). Similar patterns were observed at higher densities, excluding S. aureus exposed at 109 CFUmL-1, suggesting bacterial density at predictable levels has minimal influence on decontamination efficacy. This study provides fundamental evidence of the greater energy efficacy of 405-nm light for inactivation of clinically-significant pathogens when lower irradiances are employed, further supporting its relevance for practical decontamination applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy G Sinclair
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - John G Anderson
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Scott J MacGregor
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michelle Maclean
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST), Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
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Hygiene requirements for cleaning and disinfection of surfaces: recommendation of the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO) at the Robert Koch Institute. GMS HYGIENE AND INFECTION CONTROL 2024; 19:Doc13. [PMID: 38655122 PMCID: PMC11035912 DOI: 10.3205/dgkh000468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
This recommendation of the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO) addresses not only hospitals, but also outpatient health care facilities and compiles current evidence. The following criteria are the basis for the indications for cleaning and disinfection: Infectious bioburden and tenacity of potential pathogens on surfaces and their transmission routes, influence of disinfecting surface cleaning on the rate of nosocomial infections, interruption of cross infections due to multidrug-resistant organisms, and outbreak control by disinfecting cleaning within bundles. The criteria for the selection of disinfectants are determined by the requirements for effectiveness, the efficacy spectrum, the compatibility for humans and the environment, as well as the risk potential for the development of tolerance and resistance. Detailed instructions on the organization and implementation of cleaning and disinfection measures, including structural and equipment requirements, serve as the basis for their implementation. Since the agents for surface disinfection and disinfecting surface cleaning have been classified as biocides in Europe since 2013, the regulatory consequences are explained. As possible addition to surface disinfection, probiotic cleaning, is pointed out. In an informative appendix (only in German), the pathogen characteristics for their acquisition of surfaces, such as tenacity, infectious dose and biofilm formation, and the toxicological and ecotoxicological characteristics of microbicidal agents as the basis for their selection are explained, and methods for the evaluation of the resulting quality of cleaning or disinfecting surface cleaning are presented.
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Amodeo D, Manzi P, De Palma I, Puccio A, Nante N, Barcaccia M, Marini D, Pietrella D. Efficacy of Violet-Blue (405 nm) LED Lamps for Disinfection of High-Environmental-Contact Surfaces in Healthcare Facilities: Leading to the Inactivation of Microorganisms and Reduction of MRSA Contamination. Pathogens 2023; 12:1338. [PMID: 38003802 PMCID: PMC10674356 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective disinfection procedures in healthcare facilities are essential to prevent transmission. Chemical disinfectants, hydrogen peroxide vapour (HPV) systems and ultraviolet (UV) light are commonly used methods. An emerging method, violet-blue light at 405 nm, has shown promise for surface disinfection. Its antimicrobial properties are based on producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) that lead to the inactivation of pathogens. Studies have shown significant efficacy in reducing bacterial levels on surfaces and in the air, reducing nosocomial infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial effectiveness of violet-blue (405 nm) LED lamps on high-contact surfaces in a hospital infection-control laboratory. High-contact surfaces were sampled before and after 7 days of exposure to violet-blue light. In addition, the effect of violet-blue light on MRSA-contaminated surfaces was investigated. Exposure to violet-blue light significantly reduced the number of bacteria, yeasts and moulds on the sampled surfaces. The incubator handle showed a low microbial load and no growth after irradiation. The worktable and sink showed an inconsistent reduction due to shaded areas. In the second experiment, violet-blue light significantly reduced the microbial load of MRSA on surfaces, with a greater reduction on steel surfaces than on plastic surfaces. Violet-blue light at 405 nm has proven to be an effective tool for pathogen inactivation in healthcare settings Violet-blue light shows promise as an additional and integrated tool to reduce microbial contamination in hospital environments but must be used in combination with standard cleaning practices and infection control protocols. Further research is needed to optimise the violet-blue, 405 nm disinfection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Amodeo
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy;
| | - Pietro Manzi
- Hospital of Santa Maria di Terni, 05100 Terni, Italy;
| | - Isa De Palma
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy;
| | - Alessandro Puccio
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (A.P.); (N.N.)
| | - Nicola Nante
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (A.P.); (N.N.)
| | | | - Daniele Marini
- Medical Microbiology Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy; (D.M.); (D.P.)
| | - Donatella Pietrella
- Medical Microbiology Section, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy; (D.M.); (D.P.)
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Sinclair LG, Ilieva Z, Morris G, Anderson JG, MacGregor SJ, Maclean M. Viricidal Efficacy of a 405-nm Environmental Decontamination System for Inactivation of Bacteriophage Phi6: Surrogate for SARS-CoV-2. Photochem Photobiol 2023; 99:1493-1500. [PMID: 36872097 PMCID: PMC10952546 DOI: 10.1111/php.13798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
The highly transmittable nature of SARS-CoV-2 has increased the necessity for novel strategies to safely decontaminate public areas. This study investigates the efficacy of a low irradiance 405-nm light environmental decontamination system for the inactivation of bacteriophage phi6 as a surrogate for SARS-CoV-2. Bacteriophage phi6 was exposed to increasing doses of low irradiance (~0.5 mW cm-2 ) 405-nm light while suspended in SM buffer and artificial human saliva at low (~103-4 PFU mL-1 ) and high (~107-8 PFU mL-1 ) seeding densities, to determine system efficacy for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation and establish the influence of biologically relevant suspension media on viral susceptibility. Complete/near-complete (≥99.4%) inactivation was demonstrated in all cases, with significantly enhanced reductions observed in biologically relevant media (P < 0.05). Doses of 43.2 and 172.8 J cm-2 were required to achieve ~3 log10 reductions at low density, and 97.2 and 259.2 J cm-2 achieved ~6 log10 reductions at high density, in saliva and SM buffer, respectively: 2.6-4 times less dose was required when suspended in saliva compared to SM buffer. Comparative exposure to higher irradiance (~50 mW cm-2 ) 405-nm light indicated that, on a per unit dose basis, 0.5 mW cm-2 treatments were capable of achieving up to 5.8 greater log10 reductions with up to 28-fold greater germicidal efficiency than that of 50 mW cm-2 treatments. These findings establish the efficacy of low irradiance 405-nm light systems for inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and demonstrate the significant enhancement in susceptibility when suspended in saliva, which is a major vector in COVID-19 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy G. Sinclair
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST)University of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
| | - Zornitsa Ilieva
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
| | - Georgina Morris
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
| | - John G. Anderson
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST)University of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
| | - Scott J. MacGregor
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST)University of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
| | - Michelle Maclean
- Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST)University of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of StrathclydeGlasgowUK
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Rutala WA, Donskey CJ, Weber DJ. Disinfection and sterilization: New technologies. Am J Infect Control 2023; 51:A13-A21. [PMID: 37890943 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2023.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adherence to professional guidelines and/or manufacturer's instructions for use regarding proper disinfection and sterilization of medical devices is crucial to preventing cross transmission of pathogens between patients. Emerging pathogens (e.g., Candida auris) and complex medical devices provide new challenges. METHODS A search for published English articles on new disinfection and sterilization technologies was conducted by Google, Google scholar and PubMed. RESULTS Several new disinfection methods or products (e.g., electrostatic spraying, new sporicides, colorized disinfectants, "no touch" room decontamination, continuous room decontamination) and sterilization technologies (e.g., new sterilization technology for endoscopes) were identified. CONCLUSIONS These technologies should reduce patient risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Rutala
- Statewide Program for Infection Control and Epidemiology, University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC; Division of Infectious Diseases, UNC School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC.
| | - Curtis J Donskey
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Care, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH
| | - David J Weber
- Statewide Program for Infection Control and Epidemiology, University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC; Division of Infectious Diseases, UNC School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC; Infection Prevention, University of North Carolina Medical Center, Chapel Hill, NC
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7
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Nazeer MNM, Aholaakko TK. Using photon disinfection technologies for reducing bioburden in hospitals. BRITISH JOURNAL OF NURSING (MARK ALLEN PUBLISHING) 2023; 32:818-825. [PMID: 37737852 DOI: 10.12968/bjon.2023.32.17.818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental cleaning and disinfection is the basis of the prevention of healthcare-acquired infections (HAIs). AIM This study aimed to describe photon disinfection technologies (PDTs), report their impact on inactivating micro-organisms and preventing HAIs and to create recommendations for their implementation in hospital settings. METHODS An integrated literature review was completed to evaluate and report the impact of PDTs in hospital settings. The quality of 23 articles were assessed, their contents analysed and results reported according to the PICOT model. FINDINGS The microbiological impact of the PDT varied by micro-organism, settings and according to the used devices. It was crucial that environmental cleaning was completed before the disinfection. CONCLUSION The implementation of PDT in the hospital setting requires inquiry from the viewpoints of microbiological, environmental, occupational, technical and human safety. To enhance the safe implementation of PDTs, the construction and use of evidence-based global standards for PDT are crucial.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Teija-Kaisa Aholaakko
- Principal Lecturer, Development Unit Education, Laurea University of Applied Sciences, Vantaa, Finland
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8
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Zhang W, Su P, Ma J, Tan Y, Gong M, Ma L. An Approach to Improve Energy Efficiency during Antimicrobial Blue Light Inactivation: Application of Pulse-Width Modulation Dimming to Balance Irradiance and Irradiation Time. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1431. [PMID: 37760727 PMCID: PMC10525104 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12091431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial blue light (aBL) is an effective non-destructive inactivation technique and has received increasing attention. Despite its significance, the existing research has not thoroughly delved into the impacts of irradiance and irradiation time on enhancing energy efficiency during aBL inactivation and the explanation of the enhancement effect of pulse exposure. In this paper, a series of Escherichia coli inactivation experiments with different duty cycles, pulse frequencies, and irradiation times were conducted, and the relative concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured under corresponding conditions. A two-dimensional (2-D) Hom model was proposed to evaluate the effect of irradiance and irradiation time. The results show that, compared to continuous exposure, pulsed aBL (duty cycle = 25%) can save ~37% of the energy to achieve the same inactivation effect and generate a 1.95 times higher ROS concentration. The 2-D Hom model obtains the optimal combination of average irradiance and time according to the desired reduction and shows that the irradiation time has a higher weight than the irradiance (1.677 and 1.083, respectively). Therefore, using pulse exposure with a lower average irradiance for a longer period of time can achieve a better inactivation effect when consuming equivalent energy. The proposed pulse-width modulation dimming approach helps promote the application of the aBL technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqing Zhang
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (W.Z.); (P.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Ping Su
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (W.Z.); (P.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Jianshe Ma
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (W.Z.); (P.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Ying Tan
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (W.Z.); (P.S.); (M.G.)
| | - Mali Gong
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (W.Z.); (P.S.); (M.G.)
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Liya Ma
- Shenzhen Baoan Women and Children’s Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518100, China;
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9
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Sinclair LG, Dougall LR, Ilieva Z, McKenzie K, Anderson JG, MacGregor SJ, Maclean M. Laboratory evaluation of the broad-spectrum antibacterial efficacy of a low-irradiance visible 405-nm light system for surface-simulated decontamination. HEALTH AND TECHNOLOGY 2023; 13:1-15. [PMID: 37363345 PMCID: PMC10264887 DOI: 10.1007/s12553-023-00761-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Lighting systems which use visible light blended with antimicrobial 405-nm violet-blue light have recently been developed for safe continuous decontamination of occupied healthcare environments. This paper characterises the optical output and antibacterial efficacy of a low irradiance 405-nm light system designed for environmental decontamination applications, under controlled laboratory conditions. Methods In the current study, the irradiance output of a ceiling-mounted 405-nm light source was profiled within a 3×3×2 m (18 m3) test area; with values ranging from 0.001-2.016 mWcm-2. To evaluate antibacterial efficacy of the light source for environmental surface decontamination, irradiance levels within this range (0.021-1 mWcm-2) at various angular (Δ ϴ=0-51.3) and linear (∆s=1.6-2.56 m) displacements from the source were used to generate inactivation kinetics, using the model organism, Staphylococcus aureus. Additionally, twelve bacterial species were surface-seeded and light-exposed at a fixed displacement below the source (1.5 m; 0.5 mWcm-2) to demonstrate broad-spectrum efficacy at heights typical of high touch surfaces within occupied settings. Results Results demonstrate that significant (P≤0.05) inactivation was successfully achieved at all irradiance values investigated, with spatial positioning from the source affecting inactivation, with greater times required for inactivation as irradiance decreased. Complete/near-complete (≥93.28%) inactivation of all bacteria was achieved following exposure to 0.5 mWcm-2 within exposure times realistic of those utilised practically for whole-room decontamination (2-16 h). Conclusion This study provides fundamental evidence of the efficacy, and energy efficiency, of low irradiance 405-nm light for bacterial inactivation within a controlled laboratory setting, further justifying its benefits for practical infection control applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy G Sinclair
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Laura R Dougall
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Zornitsa Ilieva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Karen McKenzie
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - John G Anderson
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Scott J MacGregor
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michelle Maclean
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Zhang W, Su P, Ma J, Gong M, Ma L, Wang J. A singlet state oxygen generation model based on the Monte Carlo method of visible antibacterial blue light inactivation. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2023; 239:112628. [PMID: 36610348 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2022.112628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Visible antibacterial blue light (VABL) has received much attention recently as a nondestructive inactivation approach. However, due to the sparse distribution of bacteria, the light energy evaluation method used in existing studies is inaccurate. Thus, the sensitivity of microorganisms to VABL in different experiments cannot be compared. In this paper, a Monte Carlo-based photon transport model with the optimized scattering phase function was constructed. The model calculated the spatial light energy distribution and the temporal distribution of cumulative singlet state oxygen (CSO) under various cell and medium parameters. The simulation results show that when the cells are sparsely distributed, <30% of light energy from the light source is absorbed by microbes and participates in photochemical reactions. The CSO produced increases with cell density and cell size. Little light energy is available, and thus, the concentration of CSO produced is insufficient to inactivate microbes at deeper depths. As the light intensity and inactivation time increased, the production of singlet state oxygen tended to level off. The model proposed here can quantify the generation of singlet state oxygen and provide a more accurate light energy guide for the VABL inactivation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqing Zhang
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Ping Su
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jianshe Ma
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Mali Gong
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China; Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Liya Ma
- Shenzhen Baoan Women and Children's Hospital, Jinan University, Shenzhen 518100, China
| | - Jing Wang
- College of Water Conservancy, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650000, China
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11
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Anforderungen an die Hygiene bei der Reinigung und Desinfektion von Flächen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2022; 65:1074-1115. [PMID: 36173419 PMCID: PMC9521013 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-022-03576-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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12
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Haridas D, Atreya CD. The microbicidal potential of visible blue light in clinical medicine and public health. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:905606. [PMID: 35935800 PMCID: PMC9353137 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.905606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Visible blue light of wavelengths in the 400–470 nm range has been observed to have microbicidal properties. A widely accepted hypothesis for the mechanism of microbial inactivation by visible blue light is that the light causes photoexcitation of either endogenous (present within the microbe) or, exogenous (present in the biological medium surrounding the microbe) photosensitizers such as porphyrins and flavins, which leads to the release of reactive oxygen species that subsequently manifests microbicidal activity. Some of the factors that have been observed to be associated with enhanced microbicidal action include increased duration of exposure, and either pre- or co-treatment with quinine hydrochloride. In case of bacteria, repetitive exposure to the blue light shows no significant evidence of resistance development. Additionally, visible blue light has exhibited the ability to inactivate fungal and viral pathogens and, multidrug-resistant bacteria as well as bacterial biofilms. Visible blue light has demonstrated efficacy in eliminating foodborne pathogens found on food surfaces and exposed surfaces in the food processing environment as well as in the decontamination of surfaces in the clinical environment to minimize the spread of nosocomial infections. We conclude from reviewing existing literature on the application of the blue light in clinical medicine and public health settings that this microbicidal light is emerging as a safer alternative to conventional ultraviolet light-based technologies in multiple settings. However, further comprehensive studies and thorough understanding of the mechanism of microbicidal action of this light in different scenarios is warranted to determine its place in human health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devika Haridas
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Chintamani D. Atreya
- Laboratory of Cellular Hematology, Division of Blood Components and Devices, Office of Blood Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD, United States
- *Correspondence: Chintamani D. Atreya,
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13
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Leanse LG, Dos Anjos C, Mushtaq S, Dai T. Antimicrobial blue light: A 'Magic Bullet' for the 21st century and beyond? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 180:114057. [PMID: 34800566 PMCID: PMC8728809 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.114057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, antimicrobial blue light (aBL) at 400 - 470 nm wavelength has demonstrated immense promise as an alternative approach for the treatment of multidrug-resistant infections. Since our last review was published in 2017, there have been numerous studies that have investigated aBL in terms of its, efficacy, safety, mechanism, and propensity for resistance development. In addition, researchers have looked at combinatorial approaches that exploit aBL and other traditional and non-traditional therapeutics. To that end, this review aims to update the findings from numerous studies that capitalize on the antimicrobial effects of aBL, with a focus on: efficacy of aBL against different microbes, identifying endogenous chromophores and targets of aBL, Resistance development to aBL, Safety of aBL against host cells, and Synergism of aBL with other agents. We will also discuss our perspective on the future of aBL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon G Leanse
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Carolina Dos Anjos
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sana Mushtaq
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA; Department of Pharmacy, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad campus, Pakistan
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
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14
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Besegato JF, de Melo PBG, Tamae PE, Alves APAR, Rondón LF, Leanse LG, Dos Anjos C, Casarin HH, Chinelatti MA, Faria G, Dai T, Bagnato VS, Rastelli ANDS. How can biophotonics help dentistry to avoid or minimize cross infection by SARS-CoV-2? Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2021; 37:102682. [PMID: 34910994 PMCID: PMC8666148 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Biophotonics is defined as the combination of biology and photonics (the physical science of the light). It is a general term for all techniques that deal with the interaction between biological tissues/cells and photons (light). Biophotonics offers a great variety of techniques that can facilitate the early detection of diseases and promote innovative theragnostic approaches. As the COVID-19 infection can be transmitted due to the face-to-face communication, droplets and aerosol inhalation and the exposure to saliva, blood, and other body fluids, as well as the handling of sharp instruments, dental practices are at increased risk of infection. In this paper, a literature review was performed to explore the application of Biophotonics approaches in Dentistry focusing on the COVID-19 pandemic and how they can contribute to avoid or minimize the risks of infection in a dental setting. For this, search-related papers were retrieved from PubMED, Scielo, Google Schoolar, and American Dental Association and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention databases. The body of evidence currently available showed that Biophotonics approaches can reduce microorganism load, decontaminate surfaces, air, tissues, and minimize the generation of aerosol and virus spreading by minimally invasive, time-saving, and alternative techniques in general. However, each clinical situation must be individually evaluated regarding the benefits and drawbacks of these approaches, but always pursuing less-invasive and less aerosol-generating procedures, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Felipe Besegato
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Priscila Borges Gobbo de Melo
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Eriko Tamae
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Aparecida Raimundo Alves
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Felipe Rondón
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Leon G Leanse
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, University of Harvard, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Carolina Dos Anjos
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, University of Harvard, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Heitor Hussni Casarin
- Dentistry School, Central Paulista University Center - UNICEP, São Carlos 13563-470, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Gisele Faria
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil.
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, University of Harvard, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | | | - Alessandra Nara de Souza Rastelli
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Araraquara, São Paulo State University - UNESP, 1680 Humaitá Street - 3rd floor, Araraquara 14801-903, SP, Brazil.
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15
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Rathnasinghe R, Jangra S, Miorin L, Schotsaert M, Yahnke C, Garcίa-Sastre A. The virucidal effects of 405 nm visible light on SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19470. [PMID: 34593848 PMCID: PMC8484654 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97797-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The germicidal potential of specific wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum is an area of growing interest. While ultra-violet (UV) based technologies have shown satisfactory virucidal potential, the photo-toxicity in humans coupled with UV associated polymer degradation limit their use in occupied spaces. Alternatively, longer wavelengths with less irradiation energy such as visible light (405 nm) have largely been explored in the context of bactericidal and fungicidal applications. Such studies indicated that 405 nm mediated inactivation is caused by the absorbance of porphyrins within the organism creating reactive oxygen species which result in free radical damage to its DNA and disruption of cellular functions. The virucidal potential of visible-light based technologies has been largely unexplored and speculated to be ineffective given the lack of porphyrins in viruses. The current study demonstrated increased susceptibility of lipid-enveloped respiratory pathogens of importance such as SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of COVID-19) and influenza A virus to 405 nm, visible light in the absence of exogenous photosensitizers thereby indicating a potential alternative porphyrin-independent mechanism of visible light mediated viral inactivation. These results were obtained using less than expected irradiance levels which are considered safe for humans and commercially achievable. Our results support further exploration of the use of visible light technology for the application of continuous decontamination in occupied areas within hospitals and/or infectious disease laboratories, specifically for the inactivation of respiratory pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raveen Rathnasinghe
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Sonia Jangra
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lisa Miorin
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Michael Schotsaert
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | | | - Adolfo Garcίa-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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16
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Warren BG, Turner N, Smith B, Addison R, Marden S, Weber DJ, Rutala WA, Anderson DJ. Measuring the Impact of Continuous Disinfection Strategies on Environmental Burden in Outpatient Settings: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Our primary objective was to determine the effectiveness of 2 enhanced disinfection strategies compared with standard disinfection: “near-UV” light (Arm 1) and a persistent organosilane quaternary ammonium disinfectant (Arm 2) using a triple-blind study design. Our secondary objective was to characterize environmental contamination of outpatient clinics.
Methods
This trial was conducted at 2 clinics: the wound and pulmonary outpatient clinics at Duke University Health System in Durham, North Carolina. In Arm 1, room overhead lights were replaced with 405-nm near-UV visible light bulbs. In Arm 2, the organosilane quaternary ammonium disinfectant was applied to all room surfaces. The control arm received no intervention. All arms received routine disinfection. Room contamination was measured twice daily (before and after clinic) over 25 clinic days.
Results
The primary outcome was the change in total contamination, measured in colony forming units (CFUs), on environmental surfaces at the end of the clinic day compared with the beginning of the clinic day. Results from each intervention arm were compared against results from the control arm. The median delta total CFU for Arm 1 was 2092 CFUs (interquartile range [IQR], −1815 to 8566); the median delta for Arm 2 was 2016 CFUs (IQR, −1443 to 7430). Compared with the control arm (median delta = 1987 [IQR, −1611 to 15 857]), neither intervention led to a significant decrease in daily room contamination change (P for Arm 1 = 0.78 and P for Arm 2 = 0.71).
Conclusions
Neither near-UV lights or a persistent organosilane quaternary ammonium disinfectant reduced environmental contamination in 2 outpatient clinics compared with control rooms but did reduce the number of clinically important pathogens recovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby G Warren
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nicholas Turner
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Becky Smith
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel Addison
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Samantha Marden
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - David J Weber
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - William A Rutala
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Deverick J Anderson
- Duke Center for Antimicrobial Stewardship and Infection Prevention, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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17
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Self-Disinfecting Copper Beds Sustain Terminal Cleaning and Disinfection Effects throughout Patient Care. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 86:AEM.01886-19. [PMID: 31704675 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01886-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial burden associated with near-patient touch surfaces results in a greater risk of health care-associated infections (HAIs). Acute care beds may be a critical fomite, as traditional plastic surfaces harbor the highest concentrations of bacteria associated with high-touch surfaces in a hospital room's patient zone. Five high-touch intensive care unit (ICU) bed surfaces encountered by patients, health care workers, and visitors were monitored by routine culture to assess the effect U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA)-registered antimicrobial copper materials have on the microbial burden. Despite both daily and discharge cleaning and disinfection, each control bed's plastic surfaces exceeded bacterial concentrations recommended subsequent to terminal cleaning and disinfection (TC&D) of 2.5 aerobic CFU/cm2 Beds with self-disinfecting (copper) surfaces harbored significantly fewer bacteria throughout the patient stay than control beds, at levels below those considered to increase the likelihood of HAIs. With adherence to routine daily and terminal cleaning regimes throughout the study, the copper alloy surfaces neither tarnished nor required additional cleaning or special maintenance. Beds encapsulated with U.S. EPA-registered antimicrobial copper materials were found to sustain the microbial burden below the TC&D risk threshold levels throughout the patient stay, suggesting that outfitting acute care beds with such materials may be an important supplement to controlling the concentration of infectious agents and thereby potentially reducing the overall HAI risk.IMPORTANCE Despite cleaning efforts of environmental service teams and substantial compliance with hand hygiene best practices, the microbial burden in patient care settings often exceeds concentrations at which transfer to patients represents a substantial acquisition risk for health care-associated infections (HAIs). Approaches to limit HAI risk have relied on designing health care equipment and furnishings that are easier to clean and/or the use of no-touch disinfection interventions such as germicidal UV irradiation or vapor deposition of hydrogen peroxide. In a clinical trial evaluating the largest fomite in the patient care setting, the bed, a bed was encapsulated with continuously disinfecting antimicrobial copper surfaces, which reduced the bacteria on surfaces by 94% and sustained the microbial burden below the terminal cleaning and disinfection risk threshold throughout the patient's stay. Such an intervention, which continuously limits microbes on high-touch surfaces, should be studied in a broader range of health care settings to determine its potential long-range efficacy for reducing HAI.
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18
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Weber DJ, Rutala WA, Sickbert-Bennett EE, Kanamori H, Anderson D. Continuous room decontamination technologies. Am J Infect Control 2019; 47S:A72-A78. [PMID: 31146855 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2019.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The contaminated surface environment in the rooms of hospitalized patients is an important risk factor for the colonization and infection of patients with multidrug-resistant pathogens. Improved terminal cleaning and disinfection have been demonstrated to reduce the incidence of health care-associated infections. In the United States, hospitals generally perform daily cleaning and disinfection of patient rooms. However, cleaning and disinfection are limited by the presence of the patient in room (eg, current ultraviolet devices and hydrogen peroxide systems cannot be used) and the fact that after disinfection pathogenic bacteria rapidly recolonize surfaces and medical devices/equipment. For this reason, there has been great interest in developing methods of continuous room disinfection and/or "self-disinfecting" surfaces. This study will review the research on self-disinfecting surfaces (eg, copper-coated surfaces and persistent chemical disinfectants) and potential new room disinfection methods (eg, "blue light" and diluted hydrogen peroxide systems).
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19
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Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Best practices for disinfection of noncritical environmental surfaces and equipment in health care facilities: A bundle approach. Am J Infect Control 2019; 47S:A96-A105. [PMID: 31146858 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2019.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, there is excellent evidence in the scientific literature that contaminated environmental surfaces and noncritical patient care items play an important role in the transmission of several key health care-associated pathogens including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Acinetobacter, norovirus, and Clostridium difficile. Thus, surface disinfection of noncritical environmental surfaces and medical devices is one of the infection prevention strategies to prevent pathogen transmission. This article will discuss a bundle approach to facilitate effective surface cleaning and disinfection in health care facilities. A bundle is a set of evidence-based practices, generally 3-5, that when performed collectively and reliably have been proven to improve patient outcomes. This bundle has 5 components and the science associated with each component will be addressed. These components are: creating evidence-based policies and procedures; selection of appropriate cleaning and disinfecting products; educating staff to include environmental services, patient equipment, and nursing; monitoring compliance (eg, thoroughness of cleaning, product use) with feedback (ie, just in time coaching); and implementing a "no touch" room decontamination technology and to ensure compliance for patients on contact and enteric precautions. This article will also discuss new technologies (eg, continuous room decontamination technology) that may enhance our infection prevention strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Rutala
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC.
| | - David J Weber
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC; Department of Hospital Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Hospitals, Chapel Hill, NC
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20
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Tomb RM, White TA, Coia JE, Anderson JG, MacGregor SJ, Maclean M. Review of the Comparative Susceptibility of Microbial Species to Photoinactivation Using 380-480 nm Violet-Blue Light. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 94:445-458. [DOI: 10.1111/php.12883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachael M. Tomb
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Tracy A. White
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - John E. Coia
- Department of Clinical Microbiology; Glasgow Royal Infirmary; Glasgow UK
| | - John G. Anderson
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Scott J. MacGregor
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Michelle Maclean
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
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