Fluorescence based oxygen uptake analysis in the study of metabolic responses to apoptosis induction

Assessment of the inhibition of Dengue virus infection by carrageenan via real-time monitoring of cellular oxygen consumption rates within a microfluidic device

A microfluidic device combined with a light modulation system was developed to assess the inhibitory effect of carrageenan on Dengue virus (DENV) infection via real-time monitoring of cellular oxygen consumption rates (OCRs). Measuring cellular OCRs, which can reflect cellular metabolic activity, enabled us to monitor the process of viral infection in real time and to rapidly determine the antiviral activity of potential drugs/chemical compounds. The time variation of the cellular OCR of single cells that were infected in situ by DENV at different multiplicity of infection (m.o.i.) values was first successfully measured within a microfluidic device. The influence of the timing of carrageenan treatment on DENV infection was then examined by real-time monitoring of cellular OCRs in three groups. Cells that were pre-treated with carrageenan and then infected with DENV served as a pre-treatment group, cells to which carrageenan was added simultaneously with DENV served as a virucide group, and cells that were pre-infected with DENV and then treated with carrageenan served as a post-treatment group. By monitoring cellular OCRs, we could rapidly evaluate the inhibitory effect of carrageenan on DENV infection, obtaining a result within 7 h and showing that carrageenan had strong and effective anti-DENV activity in the three groups. In particular, a strong inhibitory effect was observed in the virucide group. Moreover, once the virus enters host cells in the post-treatment group, the immediate treatment with carrageenan for the infected cells has higher efficiency of antiviral activity. Our proposed platform enables to perform time-course or dose-response measurements of changes in cellular metabolic activity caused by diseases, chemical compounds, and drugs via monitoring of the cellular OCR, with rapid and real-time detection. This approach provides the potential to study a wide range of biological applications in cell-based biosensing, toxicology, and drug discovery.

Metabolic profile analysis of a single developing zebrafish embryo via monitoring of oxygen consumption rates within a microfluidic device

A combination of a microfluidic device with a light modulation system was developed to detect the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of a single developing zebrafish embryo via phase-based phosphorescence lifetime detection. The microfluidic device combines two components: an array of glass microwells containing Pt(II) octaethylporphyrin as an oxygen-sensitive luminescent layer and a microfluidic module with pneumatically actuated glass lids above the microwells to controllably seal the microwells of interest. The total basal respiration (OCR, in pmol O2/min/embryo) of a single developing zebrafish embryo inside a sealed microwell has been successfully measured from the blastula stage (3 h post-fertilization, 3 hpf) through the hatching stage (48 hpf). The total basal respiration increased in a linear and reproducible fashion with embryonic age. Sequentially adding pharmacological inhibitors of bioenergetic pathways allows us to perform respiratory measurements of a single zebrafish embryo at key developmental stages and thus monitor changes in mitochondrial function in vivo that are coordinated with embryonic development. We have successfully measured the metabolic profiles of a single developing zebrafish embryo from 3 hpf to 48 hpf inside a microfluidic device. The total basal respiration is partitioned into the non-mitochondrial respiration, mitochondrial respiration, respiration due to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) turnover, and respiration due to proton leak. The changes in these respirations are correlated with zebrafish embryonic development stages. Our proposed platform provides the potential for studying bioenergetic metabolism in a developing organism and for a wide range of biomedical applications that relate mitochondrial physiology and disease.

Light-addressable measurements of cellular oxygen consumption rates in microwell arrays based on phase-based phosphorescence lifetime detection

A digital light modulation system that utilizes a modified commercial digital micromirror device (DMD) projector, which is equipped with a UV light-emitting diode as a light modulation source, has been developed to spatially direct excited light toward a microwell array device to detect the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of single cells via phase-based phosphorescence lifetime detection. The microwell array device is composed of a combination of two components: an array of glass microwells containing Pt(II) octaethylporphine (PtOEP) as the oxygen-sensitive luminescent layer and a microfluidic module with pneumatically actuated glass lids set above the microwells to controllably seal the microwells of interest. By controlling the illumination pattern on the DMD, the modulated excitation light can be spatially projected to only excite the sealed microwell for cellular OCR measurements. The OCR of baby hamster kidney-21 fibroblast cells cultivated on the PtOEP layer within a sealed microwell has been successfully measured at 104 ± 2.96 amol s(-1) cell(-1). Repeatable and consistent measurements indicate that the oxygen measurements did not adversely affect the physiological state of the measured cells. The OCR of the cells exhibited a good linear relationship with the diameter of the microwells, ranging from 400 to 1000 μm and containing approximately 480 to 1200 cells within a microwell. In addition, the OCR variation of single cells in situ infected by Dengue virus with a different multiplicity of infection was also successfully measured in real-time. This proposed platform provides the potential for a wide range of biological applications in cell-based biosensing, toxicology, and drug discovery.

Comparative bioenergetic assessment of transformed cells using a cell energy budget platform

The aberrant expression and functional activity of proteins involved in ATP production pathways may cause a crisis in energy generation for cells and compromise their survival under stressful conditions such as excitation, starvation, pharmacological treatment or disease states. Under resting conditions such defects are often compensated for, and therefore masked by, alternative pathways which have significant spare capacity. Here we present a multiplexed 'cell energy budget' platform which facilitates metabolic assessment and cross-comparison of different cells and the identification of genes directly or indirectly involved in ATP production. Long-decay emitting O(2) and pH sensitive probes and time-resolved fluorometry are used to measure changes in cellular O(2) consumption, glycolytic and total extracellular acidification (ECA), along with the measurement of total ATP and protein content in multiple samples. To assess the extent of spare capacity in the main energy pathways, the cells are also analysed following double-treatment with carbonyl cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone and oligomycin. The four-parametric platform operating in a high throughput format has been validated with two panels of transformed cells: mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) lacking the Krebs cycle enzyme fumarate hydratase (Fh1) and HeLa cells with reduced expression of pyrimidine nucleotide carrier 1. In both cases, a marked reduction in both respiration and spare respiratory capacity was observed, accompanied by a compensatory activation of glycolysis and consequent maintenance of total ATP levels. At the same time, in Fh1-deficient MEFs the contribution of non-glycolytic pathways to the ECA did not change.

A microwell array device capable of measuring single-cell oxygen consumption rates

Due to interest in cell population heterogeneity, the development of new technology and methodologies for studying single cells has dramatically increased in recent years. The ideal single cell measurement system would be high throughput for statistical relevance, would measure the most important cellular parameters, and minimize disruption of normal cell function. We have developed a microwell array device capable of measuring single cell oxygen consumption rates (OCR). This OCR device is able to diffusionally isolate single cells and enables the quantitative measurement of oxygen consumed by a single cell with fmol/min resolution in a non-invasive and relatively high throughput manner. A glass microwell array format containing fixed luminescent sensors allows for future incorporation of additional cellular parameter sensing capabilities. To demonstrate the utility of the OCR device, we determined the oxygen consumption rates of a small group of single cells (12 to 18) for three different cells lines: murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7, human epithelial lung cancer cell line A549, and human Barrett's esophagus cell line CP-D.

Analysis of mitochondrial function using phosphorescent oxygen-sensitive probes

Mitochondrial dysfunction has been associated with a variety of currently marketed therapeutics and has also been implicated in many disease states. Alterations in the rate of oxygen consumption are an informative indicator of mitochondrial dysfunction, but the use of such assays has been limited by the constraints of traditional measurement approaches. Here, we present a high-throughput, fluorescence-based methodology for the analysis of mitochondrial oxygen consumption using a phosphorescent oxygen-sensitive probe, standard microtitre plates and plate reader detection. The protocol describes the isolation of mitochondria from animal tissue, initial establishment and optimization of the oxygen consumption assay, subsequent screening of compounds for mitochondrial toxicity (uncoupling and inhibition), data analysis and generation of dose-response curves. It allows dozens of compounds (or hundreds of assay points) to be analyzed in a single day, and can be further up-scaled, automated and adapted for other enzyme- and cell-based screening applications.

Nicotinamide extends replicative lifespan of human cells

We found that an ongoing application of nicotinamide to normal human fibroblasts not only attenuated expression of the aging phenotype but also increased their replicative lifespan, causing a greater than 1.6-fold increase in the number of population doublings. Although nicotinamide by itself does not act as an antioxidant, the cells cultured in the presence of nicotinamide exhibited reduced levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative damage products associated with cellular senescence, and a decelerated telomere shortening rate without a detectable increase in telomerase activity. Furthermore, in the treated cells growing beyond the original Hayflick limit, the levels of p53, p21WAF1, and phospho-Rb proteins were similar to those in actively proliferating cells. The nicotinamide treatment caused a decrease in ATP levels, which was stably maintained until the delayed senescence point. Nicotinamide-treated cells also maintained high mitochondrial membrane potential but a lower respiration rate and superoxide anion level. Taken together, in contrast to its demonstrated pro-aging effect in yeast, nicotinamide extends the lifespan of human fibroblasts, possibly through reduction in mitochondrial activity and ROS production.

Respirometric Screening Technology for ADME-Tox studies

Analysis of mitochondrial dysfunction is of particular importance in drug development, as it has been implicated in many common diseases and therapeutic treatments. Here, the markers of mitochondrial function and toxicity are reviewed, as well as current methods of assessment, with particular emphasis on oxygen respirometry. Fluorescence-based Respirometric Screening Technology (RST) allows convenient high-throughput analysis of oxygen consumption by cells, isolated mitochondria, enzymes, tissues and organisms, and is, therefore, of high value for such studies and general absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion and toxicology studies. Various RST assay formats are described and specific applications are discussed. Consideration is also given to the future potential of this analytical approach.

Emerging Applications of Phosphorescent Metalloporphyrins

The subject of phosphorescent metalloporphyrins is reviewed, focusing mainly on the development and application of Pt- and Pd-porphyrins. A summary of their general chemical and photophysical properties, and guidelines for rational design of the phosphorescent labels, bioconjugates and probes is given. Examples of different detection formats and particular bio-analytical applications developed in recent years are presented. The potential of phosphorescent porphyrin label methodology is discussed and compared to that of the long-decay fluorescent lanthanide chelates and other common fluorophores.