mTORC1 activation contributes to autophagy inhibition via its recruitment to lysosomes and consequent lysosomal dysfunction in cadmium-exposed rat proximal tubular cells

Autophagy and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor signaling pathway: A molecular ballet in lipid metabolism and homeostasis

Lipids, which are indispensable for cellular architecture and energy storage, predominantly consist of triglycerides (TGs), phospholipids, cholesterol, and their derivatives. These hydrophobic entities are housed within dynamic lipid droplets (LDs), which expand and contract in response to nutrient availability. Historically perceived as a cellular waste disposal mechanism, autophagy has now been recognized as a crucial regulator of metabolism. Within this framework, lipophagy, the selective degradation of LDs, plays a fundamental role in maintaining lipid homeostasis. Dysregulated lipid metabolism and autophagy are frequently associated with metabolic disorders such as obesity and atherosclerosis. In this context, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), particularly PPAR-γ, serve as intracellular lipid sensors and master regulators of gene expression. Their regulatory influence extends to both autophagy and lipid metabolism, indicating a complex interplay between these processes. This review explores the hypothesis that PPARs may directly modulate autophagy within the realm of lipid metabolism, thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases. By elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate regulatory network that connects PPARs, autophagy, and lipid homeostasis. The crosstalk between PPARs and other signaling pathways underscores the complexity of their regulatory functions and the potential for therapeutic interventions targeting these pathways. The intricate relationships among PPARs, autophagy, and lipid metabolism represent a pivotal area of research with significant implications for understanding and treating metabolic disorders.

Insufficient FUNDC1-dependent mitophagy due to early environmental cadmium exposure triggers mitochondrial redox imbalance to aggravate diet-induced lipotoxicity

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic contaminant widely spread in natural and industrial environments. Adolescent exposure to Cd increases risk for obesity-related morbidity in young adults including type 2 diabetes and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Despite this recognition, the direct impact of adolescent Cd exposure on the progression of MASLD later in life, and the mechanisms underlying these effects, remain unclear. Here, adolescent rats received control diet or diets containing 2 mg Cd2+/kg feed for 4 weeks, and then HFD containing 15% lard or control diet in young adult rats was selected for 6 weeks to clarify this issue. Data firstly showed that HFD-fed rats in young adulthood due to adolescent Cd exposure exhibited more severe MASLD, evidenced by increased liver damage, disordered serum and hepatic lipid levels, and activated NLRP3 inflammasome. Hepatic transcriptome analysis revealed the potential effects of mitochondrial dysfunction in aggravated MASLD due to Cd exposure. Verification data further confirmed that mitochondrial structure and function were targeted and disrupted during this process, shown by broken mitochondrial ridges, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, imbalanced mitochondrial dynamic, insufficient ATP concentration, and enhanced mitochondrial ROS generation. However, mitophagy is inactively involved in clearance of damaged mitochondria induced by early Cd in HFD condition due to inhibited mitophagy receptor FUNDC1. In contrast, FUNDC1-dependent mitophagy activation prevents lipotoxicity aggravated by early Cd via suppressing mitochondrial ROS generation. Collectively, our data show that insufficient FUNDC1-dependent mitophagy can drive the transition from HFD-induced MASLD to MASH, and accordingly, these findings will provide a better understanding of potential mechanism of diet-induced metabolic diseases in the context of early environmental Cd exposure.

Acetylation of FOXO1 is involved in cadmium-induced rat kidney injury via mediating autophagosome-lysosome fusion blockade and autophagy inhibition

Cadmium (Cd), a potentially toxic elements, has the potential to cause harm to the kidneys. Studies has demonstrated that autophagosome-lysosome fusion blockade and consequent autophagy inhibition is related to Cd-induced kidney injury. Studies indicate that acetylation of forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1) as a transcriptional factor of lysosomal and autophagy genes, but its roles in Cd-exposed kidney tissues remains unclear till now. Therefore, the present study was conducted to elucidate this issue. Data found that Cd enhances the acetylation level of FOXO1 and inhibits the expression level of silent information regulator 1 (Sirt1, deacetylase of FOXO1). Pharmacological activation of Sirt1 (SRT2104 treatment) decreases Cd-increased acetylation level of FOXO1, enhances Cd-inhibited transcription level of Ras-related protein 7 (Rab7), restores Cd-blocked fusion of autophagosome and lysosome, and alleviates Cd-induced autophagy inhibition. Moreover, data corroborated that inhibiting the acetylation level of FOXO1 is conductive to mitigating Cd-induced kidney injury. Collectively, these results demonstrate that acetylation of FOXO1 mediates the autophagosome-lysosome fusion blockade and autophagy inhibition during Cd-induced kidney injury, while regulating the acetylation level of FOXO1 may be a potential mechanism of treating nephrotoxicity after Cd exposure.

Cadmium targeting transcription factor EB to inhibit autophagy-lysosome function contributes to acute kidney injury

INTRODUCTION

Environmental and occupational exposure to cadmium (Cd) has been shown to cause acute kidney injury (AKI). Previous studies have demonstrated that autophagy inhibition and lysosomal dysfunction are important mechanisms of Cd-induced AKI.

OBJECTIVES

Transcription factor EB (TFEB) is a critical transcription regulator that modulates autophagy-lysosome function, but its role in Cd-induced AKI is yet to be elucidated. Thus, in vivo and in vitro studies were conducted to clarify this issue.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Data firstly showed that reduced TFEB expression and nuclear translocation were evident in Cd-induced AKI models, accompanied by autophagy-lysosome dysfunction. Pharmacological and genetic activation of TFEB improved Cd-induced AKI via alleviating autophagy inhibition and lysosomal dysfunction, whereas Tfeb knockdown further aggravated this phenomenon, suggesting the key role of TFEB in Cd-induced AKI by regulating autophagy. Mechanistically, Cd activated mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) to enhance TFEB phosphorylation and thereby inhibiting TFEB nuclear translocation. Cd also activated chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1) to promote TFEB nuclear export. Meanwhile, Cd activated general control non-repressed protein 5 (GCN5) to enhance nuclear TFEB acetylation, resulting in the decreased TFEB transcriptional activity. Moreover, inhibition of CRM1 or GCN5 alleviated Cd-induced AKI by enhancing TFEB activity, respectively.

CONCLUSION

In summary, these findings reveal that TFEB phosphorylation, nuclear export and acetylation independently suppress TFEB activity to cause Cd-induced AKI via regulating autophagy-lysosome function, suggesting that TFEB activation might be a promising treatment strategy for Cd-induced AKI.

Orexin-A/OX1R is involved in regulation of autophagy to promote cortisol secretion in adrenocortical cell

BACKGROUND

Hypercortisolism has emerged as a prominent clinical condition worldwide caused by biochemical cortisol excess in patients, and optimization treatment is needed urgently in the clinic. Previously, we observed that orexin-A/orexin type 1 receptor (OX1R) promoted cell proliferation, inhibited apoptosis, and increased cortisol release in adrenocortical cells. However, the functions of orexin-A/OX1R on autophagy and its molecular mechanism are not known.

METHODS

Transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscope were performed to detect autophagosomes. Western blot were performed to detect autophagy proteins. The cortisol concentration was assessed with an ELISA.

FINDINGS

Our data demonstrated that orexin-A/OX1R activated the mammalian target of rapamycin/p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase-1 pathway, thereby inhibiting autophagy in H295R cells and Y-1 cells. Furthermore, the orexin-A/OX1R-mediated suppression of autophagy played a crucial role in cortisol secretion. Mechanistically, the expression of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase, the rate-limiting enzyme in cortisol synthesis, was increased with autophagy inhibition mediated by orexin-A/OX1R.

INTERPRETATION

This study provided the evidence that orexin-A/OX1R participated in modulating mTOR/p70S6K1/autophagy signaling pathway to promote cortisol secretion in adrenocortical cell. The findings suggest the mechanistic basis for disorders of cortisol secretion, providing the potential therapeutic targets for hypercortisolism treatment. FUND: This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (32170603, 31871286), the Doctoral Start-up Foundation of Liaoning Province (20180540008, 2019-BS-298), the Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province (2019-ZD-0779), and Shenyang Science and Technology Plan Fund Projects (21-173-9-28).

Selenomethionine alleviates NF-κB-mediated inflammation in bovine mammary epithelial cells induced by Escherichia coli by enhancing autophagy

Autophagy is crucial for the maintenance of homeostasis under stimuli related to infection. Selenium (Se) plays variable roles in defence against infection and Selenomethionine (Se-Met) is a common Se supplementation. This study aimed to understand whether Se-Met could regulate the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway through autophagy. Mammary alveolar cell-T (MAC-T) was challenged with Escherichia coli (E. coli). Western blotting and real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) were used to detect the protein expression and mRNA expression of cytokines. Immunofluorescence assays were performed to observe the expression of intracellular LC3. The results showed that E. coli inhibited autophagy by decreasing the LC3-Ⅱ protein levels, and the Atg5 and Beclin1 protein levels were increased after 4 h. Infection also decreased the number of LC3 puncta. E. coli increased the phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα protein. Concomitantly, the levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA increased at 3 and 4 h post-infection. We further explored the regulatory role of autophagy on NF-κB-mediated inflammation with autophagy modulators and shAtg5. The results indicated that the autophagy activator reduced the phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα and the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α. Additionally, activating autophagy weakened the adhesion to MAC-T of E. coli. Autophagy inhibitors exacerbated NF-κB-mediated inflammation and strengthened the adhesion of E. coli to cells. We then examined the effects of Se-Met on NF-κB-mediated inflammation through autophagy. The data suggested that Se-Met enhanced LC3-II expression, inhibited the E. coli-induced phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα, and suppressed the adhesion ability of E. coli to MAC-T and that the effects of Se-Met in attenuating NF-κB-mediated inflammation were partially blocked by an autophagy inhibitor. In summary, Se-Met alleviated NF-κB-mediated inflammation induced by E. coli by enhancing autophagy in bovine mammary epithelial cells.

Ammonia induces autophagy via circ-IFNLR1/miR-2188-5p/RNF182 axis in tracheas of chickens

Ammonia (NH₃ ), an air pollutant in the living environment, has many toxic effects on various tissues and organs. However, the underlying mechanisms of NH₃ -induced tracheal cell autophagy remains poorly understood. In present study, chickens and LMH cells were used as NH₃ exposure models to investigate toxic effects. The change of tracheal tissues ultrastructure showed that NH₃ exposure induced autolysosomes. The differential expression of 12 circularRNAs (circRNAs) was induced by NH₃ exposure using circRNAs transcriptome analysis in broiler tracheas. We further found that circ-IFNLR1 was down-regulated, and miR-2188-5p was up-regulated in tracheal tissues under NH₃ exposure. Bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase reporter system showed that circ-IFNLR1 bound directly to miR-2188-5p and regulated each other, and miR-2188-5p regulated RNF182. Overexpression of miR-2188-5p caused autophagy and its inhibition partially reversed autophagy in LMH cells which were caused by ammonia stimulation or knockdown of circ-IFNLR1. The expressions of three autophagy-related genes (LC3, Beclin 1, and BNIP3) were observably up-regulated. Our results indicated that NH₃ exposure caused autophagy through circ-IFNLR1/miR-2188-5p/RNF182. These results provided new insights for the study of ammonia on environmental toxicology on ceRNA and circRNAs in vivo and vitro.

Cadmium exposure triggers oxidative stress, necroptosis, Th1/Th2 imbalance and promotes inflammation through the TNF-α/NF-κB pathway in swine small intestine

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic environmental pollutant and induces toxic effects to organism. Nevertheless, the mechanism of Cd-induced toxicity in swine remains obscure. To explore this, 10 healthy 6-week-old weaned swine were placed into two groups stochastically, the Cd group was treated with a commercial diet containing 20 mg/kg Cd for 40 days. The results of histopathological and ultrastructural observations showed typical necrosis features and inflammatory cell infiltration in Cd group. Excessive Cd suppressed T-AOC and SOD activities, increased MDA content and ROS levels. Cd diet elevated the expression of RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL to activate the RIPK3-dependent necroptosis pathway. Results of Th1 and Th2 cytokines indicated that the levels of IL-4, IL-6 and IL10 was increased, while the level of IFN-γ was decreased, illustrating Th1/Th2 immune imbalance leads to aggravate inflammatory responses. Cd activated the TNF-α/NF-κB pathway and induced inflammatory responses via increasing the expression of HO-1, IL-1β, iNOS, COX2. Heat shock proteins were notably elevated in response to inflammatory reactions. And these effects were inhibited by necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) and N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC). Altogether, these data demonstrated that Cd induced necroptosis and inflammation to aggravate small intestine injury in swine by increasing the excessive accumulation of ROS and imbalanced Th1/Th2, respectively.

CircRNA-IGLL1/miR-15a/RNF43 axis mediates ammonia-induced autophagy in broilers jejunum via Wnt/β-catenin pathway

With the continued increase of global ammonia emission, the damage to human or animal caused by ammonia pollution has attracted wide attention. The noncoding RNAs have been reported to regulate a variety of biological processes under different environmental stimulation via ceRNA (competing endogenous RNA) networks. Autophagy is a hallmark of tissue damage from air pollution. However, the specific role of circular RNAs (circRNAs) in the injury of intestinal tissue caused by autophagy remains unclear. Here, we established 42-days old ammonia-exposed broiler models and observed that autophagy flux in broiler jejunum was activated under ammonia exposure. Meanwhile, a total of eight significantly dysregulated expressed circRNAs were obtained and a circRNAs-miRNAs-genes interaction networks were constructed by bioinformatics analysis. Furthermore, an axis named circRNA-IGLL1/miR-15a/RNF43 was predicted to participate in the excessive autophagy by targeting RNF43. The target relationship was proved by dual-luciferase reporter assay in vitro. Mechanistically, downregulated circRNA-IGLL1 could suppress the expression of RNF43 in ammonia-exposed jejunum and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway was activated. Inhibition of miR-15a reversed autophagy caused by downregulated circRNA-IGLL1. CircRNA-IGLL1 could competitively bind miR-15a to regulate RNF43 expression, thus modulating the occurrence of autophagy. Taken together, our results showed that circRNA-IGLL1/miR-15a/RNF43 axis is involved in ammonia-induced intestinal autophagy in broilers.

Sidt2 is a key protein in the autophagy-lysosomal degradation pathway and is essential for the maintenance of kidney structure and filtration function

The regulation and homeostasis of autophagy are essential for maintaining organ morphology and function. As a lysosomal membrane protein, the effect of Sidt2 on kidney structure and renal autophagy is still unknown. In this study, we found that the kidneys of Sidt2^-/- mice showed changes in basement membrane thickening, foot process fusion, and mitochondrial swelling, suggesting that the structure of the kidney was damaged. Increased urine protein at 24 h indicated that the kidney function was also damaged. At the same time, the absence of Sidt2 caused a decrease in the number of acidic lysosomes, a decrease in acid hydrolase activity and expression in the lysosome, and an increase of pH in the lysosome, suggesting that lysosomal function was impaired after Sidt2 deletion. The accumulation of autophagolysosomes, increased LC3-II and P62 protein levels, and decreased P62 mRNA levels indicated that the absence of the Sidt2 gene caused abnormal autophagy pathway flow. Chloroquine experiment, immunofluorescence autophagosome, and lysosome fusion assay, and Ad-mcherry-GFP-LC3B further indicated that, after Sidt2 deletion, the production of autophagosomes did not increase, but the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes and the degradation of autophagolysosomes were impaired. When incubating Sidt2^-/- cells with the autophagy activator rapamycin, we found that it could activate autophagy, which manifested as an increase in autophagosomes, but it could not improve autophagolysosome degradation. Meanwhile, it further illustrated that the Sidt2 gene plays an important role in the smooth progress of autophagolysosome processes. In summary, the absence of the Sidt2 gene caused impaired lysosome function and a decreased number of acidic lysosomes, leading to formation and degradation disorders of the autophagolysosomes, which eventually manifested as abnormal kidney structure and function. Sidt2 is essential in maintaining the normal function of the lysosomes and the physiological stability of the kidneys.

Calcium overload and reactive oxygen species accumulation induced by selenium deficiency promote autophagy in swine small intestine

Selenium (Se) deficiency can seriously affect the small intestine of swine, and cause diarrhea in swine. However, the specific mechanism of Se deficiency-induced swine diarrhea has rarely been reported. Here, to explore the damage of Se deficiency on the calcium homeostasis and autophagy mechanism of swine, in vivo and in vitro models of swine intestinal Se deficiency were established. Twenty-four pure line castrated male Yorkshire pigs (45 d old, 12.50 ± 1.32 kg, 12 full-sibling pairs) were divided into 2 equal groups and fed Se-deficient diet (0.007 mg Se/kg) as the Se-deficiency group, or fed Se-adequate diet (0.3 mg Se/kg) as the control group for 16 weeks. The intestinal porcine enterocyte cell line (IPEC-J2) was divided into 2 groups, and cultured by Se-deficient medium as the Se-deficient group, or cultured by normal medium as the control group. Morphological observations showed that compared with the control group, intestinal cells in the Se-deficiency group were significantly damaged, and autophagosomes increased. Autophagy staining and cytoplasmic calcium staining results showed that in the Se-deficiency group, autophagy increased and calcium homeostasis was destroyed. According to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) staining results, the percentage of ROS in the Se-deficiency group was higher than that in the control group in the in vitro model. Compared with the control group, the protein and mRNA expressions of autophagy-calcium-related genes including Beclin 1, microtubule-associated proteins 1A (LC3-1), microtubule-associated proteins 1B (LC3-2), autophagy-related protein 5 (ATG5), autophagy-related protein 12 (ATG12), autophagy-related protein 16 (ATG16), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase β (CAMKK-β), adenosine 5′-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA), and calpain in the Se-deficiency group were significantly increased which was consistent in vivo and in vitro (P < 0.05). Altogether, our results indicated that Se deficiency could destroy the calcium homeostasis of the swine small intestine to trigger cell autophagy and oxidative stress, which was helpful to explain the mechanism of Se deficiency-induced diarrhea in swine.

H2S exposure induces cell death in the broiler thymus via the ROS-initiated JNK/MST1/FOXO1 pathway

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a common toxic gas in chicken houses that endangers the health of poultry. Harbin has a cold climate in winter, and the conflict between heat preservation and ventilation in poultry houses is obvious. In this study, we investigated the H₂S content in chicken houses during winter in Harbin and found that the H₂S concentration exceeded the national standard in individual chicken houses. Then, a model of H₂S exposure was established in an environmental simulation chamber. We also developed a NaHS exposure model of chicken peripheral blood lymphocytes in vitro. Proteomics analysis was used to reveal the toxicology of thymus injury in broilers, the FOXO signaling pathway was determined to be significantly enriched, ROS bursts and JNK/MST1/FOXO1 pathway activation induced by H₂S exposure were detected, and ROS played an important switch role in the JNK/MST1/FOXO1 pathway. In addition, H₂S exposure-induced thymus cell death involved immune dysregulation. Overall, the present study adds data for H₂S contents in chicken houses, provides new findings for the mechanism of H₂S poisoning and reveals a new regulatory pathway in immune injury.

Hydrogen sulfide exposure induces pyroptosis in the trachea of broilers via the regulatory effect of circRNA-17828/miR-6631-5p/DUSP6 crosstalk on ROS production

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is an air pollutant to cause tracheal injury. Pyroptosis is responsible for tissue injury through reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) chelate microRNAs and reduce their inhibitory effect on other transcripts, thus affecting ROS levels and pyroptosis. However, it is not clear how H₂S regulates pyroptosis via the ceRNA axis. Therefore, we established a broilers model of H₂S exposure for 42 days to assess pyroptosis and obtain a ceRNA network by immunohistochemistry and RNA sequencing. We detected pyroptosis induced by H₂S and verified circRNA-IGLL1-17828/miR-6631-5p/DUSP6 axis by a double luciferase reporter assay. We also measured ROS levels and the expression of pyroptotic indicators such as (Caspase1) Casp-1, Interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and Interleukin 1β (IL-18). miR-6631-5p knockdown decreased pyroptotic indicators induced by H₂S. Overexpression of miR-6631-5p or DUSP6 knockdown stimulated ROS generation and upregulated pyroptotic indicators. N-acetyl-_L-cysteine (NAC) decreased pyroptotic indicators and ROS levels both induced by miR-6631-5p. Moreover, circRNA-IGLL1-17828, participated in intermolecular competition as a ceRNA of DUSP6. In conclusion, circRNA-IGLL1-17828/miR-6631-5p/DUSP6 crosstalk regulated H₂S-induced pyroptosis in broilers trachea via ROS generation. This is the first study to reveal regulation mechanism of circRNA-related CeRNAs on pyroptosis induced by H₂S, providing important reference for environmental toxicology.

Puerarin attenuates cadmium-induced hepatic lipid metabolism disorder by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation in mice

Cadmium (Cd) is a common environmental pollutant with known toxic effects on the liver. Puerarin (PU), a natural flavonoid, has been shown to exert protective effect in numerous pathological processes. However, whether PU affords protection in Cd-induced liver damage is still equivocal. Therefore, 40 mice were treated with Cd and/or PU by gavage for 9 weeks, then the serum and liver samples were collected to verify this issue. In this study, Cd exposure triggered hepatic lipid metabolism disorders and resultant liver damage as evidenced by Oil Red O staining and total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels in serum and liver, aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) levels in serum, and histopathology, which were significantly improved by PU. Moreover, PU also normalized the expression of Cd-disturbed lipid metabolism-related proteins to improve lipid accumulation, contributing to the alleviation of liver injury. Moreover, Cd-decreased antioxidative indices superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) as well as glutathione (GSH) in hepatic tissues were significantly attenuated by PU administration, while Cd-elevated hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were markedly down-regulated by PU treatment, demonstrating the antioxidant effect of PU against Cd exposure. In addition, PU supplementation increased the anti-inflammatory potential, and normalized the levels of proinflammatory cytokines during Cd exposure. In conclusion, these observations demonstrate that PU treatment decreases oxidative stress and inflammation response, which may contribute to prevent Cd-induced lipid metabolism disorder and consequent liver damage.

Rapamycin antagonizes cadmium-induced breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis through directly modulating ACSS2

Cadmium (Cd) is a carcinogen that stimulates breast cancer (BC) progression. Rapamycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus that possesses a wide array of pharmacological activities, including anti-BC activity. However, the effects of rapamycin on Cd-increased BC progression and the underlying mechanism have not been fully elucidated. Here, we hypothesize that rapamycin antagonizes Cd-induced BC cell proliferation and metastasis by directly modulating ACSS2. In this study, we found that rapamycin efficiently inhibited Cd-induced proliferation, invasion and migration in MCF-7 and T47-D cells. Moreover, a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assay confirmed that rapamycin directly binds to the ACSS2 protein with a calculated equilibrium dissociation constant (KD) of 18.3 μM. Molecular docking showed that there are three binding sites in the ACSS2 protein and that rapamycin binds at the coenzyme A (COA) binding site with a docking score of - 12.26 and a binding free energy of - 26.34 kcal/mol. More importantly, rapamycin suppresses Cd-induced BC progression by activating ACSS2. After cells were cotreated with an ACSS2 inhibitor, the effects of rapamycin were abolished. In conclusion, our findings suggest that rapamycin suppresses Cd-augmented BC progression by upregulating ACSS2, and ACSS2 may serve as a direct target of rapamycin for inhibiting xenobiotic (e.g., Cd)-mediated BC progression.

Cadmium induces the thymus apoptosis of pigs through ROS-dependent PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Cadmium (Cd) is a transition metal that is toxic to living organisms in the environment and endangers living organisms. To explore whether Cd induces apoptosis in pig thymus and its possible mechanism, the role Cd induction of the PTEN/PI3K/Akt pathway in apoptosis of thymus cells was studied in pigs. We found that Cd exposure (the feed is treated with Cd) significantly increased Cd accumulation in the thymus of pigs. The TUNEL assay confirmed the typical apoptotic characteristics of thymus in Cd group. Moreover, in the Cd group, the activities of antioxidant indices decreased significantly, while the levels of oxidative stress indexes increased significantly, and the mRNA levels of GSH, CAT, Gpx1, GST, SOD1, and SOD2 decreased obviously. Moreover, the mRNA and protein levels of PTEN/PI3K/AKT and apoptosis-related genes were detected by qPCR and western blotting. The results show that the expressions of PI3K and AKT decreased, while the expression of PTEN increased, indicating that pathway activated. With the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway regulating, Bcl-2 expression decreased. Conversely, the mRNA and protein expression of apoptosis-related genes were up-regulated. In conclusion, accumulation of Cd in the pigs caused oxidative damage to immune tissues. In addition, Cd-induced oxidative stress activates the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway, inducing apoptosis in the thymus of pigs.

Selenomethionine alleviates LPS-induced JNK/NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent necroptosis by modulating miR-15a and oxidative stress in chicken lungs

Selenium (Se) was involved in many physiological processes in humans and animals. microRNAs (miRNAs) also played important roles in lung diseases. However, the regulatory mechanism of miRNA in chicken lungs and the mechanism of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pneumonia remained unclear. To further study these mechanisms, we established a supplement of selenomethionine (SeMet) and/or LPS-treated chicken model and a cell model of LPS and/or high and low expression of miR-15a in chicken hepatocellular carcinoma (LMH) cells. We detected the expression of some selenoproteins, p-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), caspase1, receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 1 (RIPK1), receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 3 (RIPK3), mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL), miR-15a and oxidative stress kits. Additionally, we observed the morphology of lungs by H.E. staining in vitro. The results indicated that necroptosis occurred in LPS-treated chicken and LMH cells. Moreover, LPS stimulation inhibited miR-15a, and increased the expression of JNK, NLRP3, caspase1, RIPK1, RIPK3, MLKL. We also found that LPS treatment not only increased the content of H2O2 and MDA in the lungs but also increased the activities of iNOS and CAT and the content of GSH decreased. Conclusion: SeMet could reduce the oxidative damage and activate NLRP3 inflammasome reaction by stimulating miR-15a/JNK, thus reduced the pulmonary necroptosis induced by LPS.

Cadmium exposure induces inflammation and necroptosis in porcine adrenal gland via activating NF-κB/MAPK pathway

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal harmful to animals and humans. Cd exposure causes inflammation or necroptosis in many tissues, including adrenal tissue. However, the current researches on the effects of Cd²⁺ in adrenal tissues are not enough. Therefore, in our experiment Cd chloride (CdCl₂) was added to the piglet's diet at a concentration of 20 mg/kg to study the effects of Cd²⁺ exposure on the porcine adrenal tissue. Our results showed that Cd²⁺ exposure could cause inflammation by activating the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway, which in turn induced necroptosis in adrenal tissue with the activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The expression increase of inflammatory factors and necroptosis downstream genes, and the downregualtion of cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase 8 (Caspase 8) proved that Cd²⁺ exposure caused inflammation and necroptosis in adrenal tissue. We conclude that this report provides more basic theoretical data for exploring the mechanism of adrenal injury.

Hydrogen sulfide of air induces macrophage extracellular traps to aggravate inflammatory injury via the regulation of miR-15b-5p on MAPK and insulin signals in trachea of chickens

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is an environmental contaminant to cause the airway damage. The release of macrophage extracellular traps (METs) is the mechanism of immune protection to harmful stimulation via microRNAs, but excessive METs cause the injury. However, few studies have attempted to interpret the mechanism of an organism injury due to H₂S via METs in chickens. Here, we investigated the transcriptome profiles, pathological morphologic changes and METs release from chicken trachea after H₂S exposure. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed that 10 differentially expressed genes were related to the METs release, the MAPK and insulin signaling pathways. Morphological and immunofluorescence analysis showed that H₂S caused airway injury and MET release. H₂S activated the targeting effect of miRNA-15b-5p on activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2). Western blotting and real time quantitative PCR results showed that H₂S down-regulated the levels of dual specificity protein phosophatase1 (DUSP1) but up-regulated p38 MAP Kinase (p38) in the MAPK signal pathway. And the expression of phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1), serine/threonine kinase (Akt), and protein kinase ζ subtypes (PKCζ) in the insulin signal pathway were increased after H₂S exposure. These promoted the release of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and degradation histone 4 (H4) to induce the release of METs. Taken together, miR-15b-5p targeted ATF2 to mediate METs release, which triggered trachea inflammatory injury via MAPK and insulin signals after H₂S exposure. These results will provide new insights into the toxicological mechanisms of H₂S and environmental ecotoxicology.

NLRP3 inflammasome mediated pyroptosis is involved in cadmium exposure-induced neuroinflammation through the IL-1β/IkB-α-NF-κB-NLRP3 feedback loop in swine

Cadmium (Cd) chloride, as widely distributed toxic environmental pollutants by using in industry, severely imperils animal and human health. Pyroptosis is a Cas1-dependent pro-inflammatory programmed cell death and involves in various types of diseases. Nevertheless, the mechanism of pyroptosis and Cd-induced neurotoxicity remains obscure. To investigate the specific molecular mechanisms of Cd-induced neurotoxicity, 10 weaned piglets were randomly divided into 2 groups treated with 0 and 20 mg/kg CdCl₂ in the diet for 40 days. The levels of pyroptosis, mitochondrial and inflammation-related genes were validated by qRT-PCR and WB in vivo. Our results revealed that Cd caused cerebral histopathology lesions, inducing cerebral pyroptosis and the mass generation of inflammatory cytokines, as indicated by the increased NLRP3 inflammasome activation (NLRP3, Cas1 and ASC) and the upregulation of inflammation factors IL-2, IL-6, IL-7 and inhibition of IL-10. Subsequently, further research indicated that Cd triggered pyroptosis via activating the TRAF6-IkB-α-NF-κB pathway, which interfered with the phosphorylation and ubiquitination of IkB-α. Furthermore, Cd caused mitochondrial dysfunction and fragmentation by inhibiting the AMPK-PGC-1α-NRF1/2 signaling pathway and reduced the expression of mitochondrial-related regulatory factors OPA1, TFAM and mtDNA, resulting in the increase of NLRP3 inflammasome. Besides, we found eight hub genes (IKK, IKB-α, NLRP3, TRAF6, NF-κB, AMPK, TNFα and PGC-1α), mainly related to the interaction between the NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome. Overall, these results demonstrated that Cd could promote the IL-1β/IkB-α-NF-κB-NLRP3 inflammasome activation positive feedback loop to result in neuroinflammation in swine, which provided new insights in understanding Cd-induced toxicity.

Puerarin induces Nrf2 as a cytoprotective mechanism to prevent cadmium-induced autophagy inhibition and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in AML12 hepatic cells

Liver is the main target organ of cadmium (Cd) toxicity and puerarin (PU) has been shown to prevent Cd-induced hepatic cell damage via its antioxidant activity. Nrf2 acts as a critical regulator of cellular defense against various oxidative insults, but its role in the protection of PU against Cd-induced hepatic damage has not yet been clarified. Hereby, this study was designed to investigate the underlying mechanism using mouse hepatocyte line AML-12. Data firstly showed that Cd-inhibited Nrf2 pathway was markedly restored by PU treatment, assessed by Nrf2 nuclear translocation, protein levels of Keap1 and Nrf2 downstream target genes. Accordingly, Cd-reduced protein levels of antioxidant enzymes were significantly up-regulated by PU. Next, Nrf2 silencing cellular model was established to further elucidate the role of Nrf2 in the protection of PU against Cd-induced hepatic damage. Attenuation of Cd-induced autophagy inhibition and autophagosome accumulation by PU was remarkably countered by Nrf2 silencing. Moreover, alleviation of Cd-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation by PU was distinctly prevented by Nrf2 knockdown, assessed by protein levels of NLRP3 inflammosome complex and downstream IL-18 and IL-1β production. Collectively, our data suggest that PU restores Cd-induced Nrf2 inhibition to prevent autophagy inhibition and NLRP3 inflammasome activation, providing novel insights into the protection of PU against Cd-induced hepatic cell damage.

Cadmium induces apoptosis of pig lymph nodes by regulating the PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α pathway

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed to explore the possible mechanism of environmental metal cadmium (Cd) inducing apoptosis of pig lymph nodes.

METHOD

10 healthy 6-week-old weaned piglets were randomly divided into two groups (n = 5 pigs/group). The control group was fed with a basic diet, and the test group was fed with a basic diet of 20 mg/kg CdCl₂.

RESULTS

The Cd deposition in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), inguinal lymph nodes (ILN) and submaxillary lymph nodes (SLN) after Cd exposure was 2.37 folds, 1.4 folds and 1.8 folds of the control group, respectively. And the rate of MLN and ILN apoptotic cells in the Cd group was 4.11 folds and 9.18 folds of the control group, respectively. The mRNA levels of SOD1, SOD2, CAT, GPX1 and GSH in the Cd group were reduced. Similarly, the two-phase detoxification enzymes had a significant downward trend. Cd exposure decreased the activities of GSH, GSH-Px, SOD, CAT, and increased H₂O₂ and MDA levels. The mRNA and protein levels of Drp1 and Mff in the Cd group were higher than the corresponding control group, and the mRNA and protein levels of Mfn1 and Mfn2 were lower than those in the control group. In addition, the mRNA and protein levels of pro-apoptotic genes in the Cd group were lower than those in the control group. Cd can significantly reduce the expression of PI3K, AKT and HIF-1α in the three lymph nodes. In summary, Cd induces oxidative stress and regulates the PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α signal transduction pathway to cause mitochondrial dynamics disorder, which leads to the apoptosis of pig lymph nodes, suggesting that Cd-induced mitochondrial pathway apoptosis is related to Cd pig lymph nodes play an important role in the toxicity mechanism.