Energy balance and metabolic changes in an overwintering wolf spider, Schizocosa stridulans

Glyphosate-based herbicides reduced overwintering population and reproduction of agrobiont spiders

Spiders are important in ecosystem and serve as predators in the biological control of pest insects in agroecosystem, where they encounter various harsh challenges including pesticides and low temperature in winter. Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBH) are widely and frequently applied to diminish weeds, exposing spiders a disturbed habitat, especially to overwintering spiders. We conducted a study combining field surveys and lab assays, to assess the effects of a GBH on the overwintering of the agrobiont wolf spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata. The GBH significantly reduced the overall overwintering spider population by about 69 %, and reduced the number of vulnerable juveniles by about 80 %. The survivors exhibited substantial fitness costs such as reproductive dysfunctions and enhanced oxidative stress responses. We then mimicked the overwinter process in lab. We housed spiders on soil patches with and without weeds to examine whether weeds contributed to the GBH's sublethal effects. Spiders overwintered independent of weeds when GBH was not applied. When GBH was applied before or during overwintering, juvenile spiders overwintered in weedy habitats exhibited reduced survival and fecundity, and increased oxidative stress compared to their counterparts in weed-free habitats. Therefore, GBH-containing weeds contributed to the persistent adverse effects of GBH on overwintering spiders. The findings revealed the cross-talk among weeds, herbicides, low temperature, and non-target organisms. The study provides novel information on the environmental risk assessment of pesticides and rational scheduling of pesticide application.

Discovery of Gibellula floridensis from Infected Spiders and Analysis of the Surrounding Fungal Entomopathogen Community

Characterization of fungal spider pathogens lags far behind their insect counterparts. In addition, little to nothing is known concerning the ecological reservoir and/or fungal entomopathogen community surrounding infection sites. Five infected spider cadavers were identified in the neo-tropical climate of north-central Florida, USA, from three of which viable cultures were obtained. Multi-locus molecular phylogenetic and morphological characterization identified one isolate as a new Gibellula species, here named, Gibellula floridensis, and the other isolates highly similar to Parengyodontium album. The fungal entomopathogen community surrounding infected spiders was sampled at different habitats/trophic levels, including soil, leaf litter, leaf, and twig, and analyzed using ITS amplicon sequencing. These data revealed broad but differential distribution of insect-pathogenic fungi between habitats and variation between sites, with members of genera belonging to Metarhizium and Metacordyceps from Clavicipitaceae, Purpureocillium and Polycephalomyces from Ophiocordyceps, and Akanthomyces and Simplicillium from Cordycipitaceae predominating. However, no sequences corresponding to Gibellula or Parengyodontium, even at the genera levels, could be detected. Potential explanations for these findings are discussed. These data highlight novel discovery of fungal spider pathogens and open the broader question regarding the environmental distribution and ecological niches of such host-specific pathogens.

The influence of season, hunting mode, and habitat specialization on riparian spiders as key predators in the aquatic-terrestrial linkage

Freshwater ecosystems subsidize riparian zones with high-quality nutrients via the emergence of aquatic insects. Spiders are dominant consumers of these insect subsidies. However, little is known about the variation of aquatic insect consumption across spiders of different hunting modes, habitat specializations, seasons, and systems. To explore this, we assembled a large stable isotope dataset (n > 1000) of aquatic versus terrestrial sources and six spider species over four points in time adjacent to a lotic and a lentic system. The spiders represent three hunting modes each consisting of a wetland specialist and a habitat generalist. We expected that specialists would feed more on aquatic prey than their generalist counterparts. Mixing models showed that spiders' diet consisted of 17-99% of aquatic sources, with no clear effect of habitat specialization. Averaged over the whole study period, web builders (WB) showed the highest proportions (78%) followed by ground hunters (GH, 42%) and vegetation hunters (VH, 31%). Consumption of aquatic prey was highest in June and August, which is most pronounced in GH and WBs, with the latter feeding almost entirely on aquatic sources during this period. Additionally, the elevated importance of high-quality lipids from aquatic origin during fall is indicated by elemental analyses pointing to an accumulation of lipids in October, which represent critical energy reserves during winter. Consequently, this study underlines the importance of aquatic prey irrespective of the habitat specialization of spiders. Furthermore, it suggests that energy flows vary substantially between spider hunting modes and seasons.

Survival and nutritional requirements for overwintering Drosophila suzukii (Diptera: Drosophilidae) in Kentucky

The ability to cope with novel climates is a key determinant of an invasive species' success. Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura, 1931) is an invasive fruit pest, and its seasonality varies across its range. Current evidence suggests that D. suzukii occurs year-round in warmer climates but has low overwintering survival in colder climates and relies on refuges or reinvades each spring. Here, we assessed the capacity of D. suzukii ability to overwinter in Kentucky, a temperate mid-latitude state with relatively mild but variable winters. We tracked year-round population changes for 3 yr and observed the highest populations in early winter months. Following an annual population crash in winter, small numbers of flies remained through the late winter and spring. We also conducted outdoor cage studies to determine the extent to which food resources and microhabitat impact survival and postwinter fecundity under natural conditions. Flies with no food had poor survival during the warmest periods of winter, and flies in all treatments had lower survival in the coldest month. Provisioning flies with either artificial diet or wild berries improved survival. As a follow-up, we determined whether D. suzukii could survive and reproduce after long-term exposure to a typical winter temperature on various wild berries. Drosophila suzukii had the highest survival on privet (Ligustrum sp.), but all berry types yielded higher survival than flies without food. Our results suggest that noncrop berries play an important role for overwintering D. suzukii, and as winters warm the availability of wild berries could influence early-season populations.

Comparative metabolomics analysis reveals high-altitude adaptations in a toad-headed viviparous lizard, Phrynocephalus vlangalii

Extreme environmental conditions at high altitude, such as hypobaric hypoxia, low temperature, and strong UV radiation, pose a great challenge to the survival of animals. Although the mechanisms of adaptation to high-altitude environments have attracted much attention for native plateau species, the underlying metabolic regulation remains unclear. Here, we used a multi-platform metabolomic analysis to compare metabolic profiles of liver between high- and low-altitude populations of toad-headed lizards, Phrynocephalus vlangalii, from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. A total of 191 differential metabolites were identified, consisting of 108 up-regulated and 83 down-regulated metabolites in high-altitude lizards as compared with values for low-altitude lizards. Pathway analysis revealed that the significantly different metabolites were associated with carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, purine metabolism, and glycerolipid metabolism. Most intermediary metabolites of glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle were not significantly altered between the two altitudes, but most free fatty acids as well as β-hydroxybutyric acid were significantly lower in the high-altitude population. This may suggest that high-altitude lizards rely more on carbohydrates as their main energy fuel rather than lipids. Higher levels of phospholipids occurred in the liver of high-altitude populations, suggesting that membrane lipids may undergo adaptive remodeling in response to low-temperature stress at high altitude. In summary, this study demonstrates that metabolic profiles differ substantially between high- and low-altitude lizard populations, and that these differential metabolites and metabolic pathways can provide new insights to reveal mechanisms of adaptation to extreme environments at high altitude.

The effects of prey lipid on female mating and reproduction of a wolf spider

As predators, the macronutrients spiders extract from their prey play important roles in their mating and reproduction. Previous studies of macronutrients on spider mating and reproduction focus on protein, the potential impact of prey lipid content on spider mating and reproduction remains largely unexplored. Here, we tested the influence of prey varying in lipid content on female mating, sexual cannibalism, reproduction, and offspring fitness in the wolf spider Pardosa pseudoannulata. We acquired 2 groups of fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster that differed significantly in lipid but not protein content by supplementing cultural media with a high or low dose of sucrose on which the fruit flies were reared (HL: high lipid and LL: low lipid). Subadult (i.e., 1 molt before adult) female spiders that fed HL flies matured with significantly higher lipid content than those fed LL flies. We found that the mated females fed with HL flies significantly shortened pre-oviposition time and resulted in a significantly higher fecundity. However, there was no significant difference in female spiders varying in lipid content on other behaviors and traits, including the latency to courtship, courtship duration, mating, copulation duration, sexual cannibalism, offspring body size, and survival. Hence, our results suggest that the lipid content of prey may be a limiting factor for female reproduction, but not for other behavioral traits in the wolf spiders P. pseudoannulata.

Metabolic responses of plasma to extreme environments in overwintering Tibetan frogs Nanorana parkeri: a metabolome integrated analysis

Many animals lower their metabolic rate in response to low temperatures and scarcity of food in the winter in phenomena called hibernation or overwintering. Living at high altitude on the Tibetan Plateau where winters are very cold, the frog Nanorana parkeri, survives in one of the most hostile environments on Earth but, to date, relatively little is known about the biochemical and physiological adjustments for overwintering by this species. The present study profiled changes in plasma metabolites of N. parkeri between winter and summer using UHPLC-QE-MS non-target metabolomics in order to explore metabolic adaptations that support winter survival. The analysis showed that, in total, 11 metabolites accumulated and 95 were reduced in overwintering frogs compared with summer-active animals. Metabolites that increased included some that may have antioxidant functions (canthaxanthin, galactinol), act as a metabolic inhibitor (mono-ethylhexylphthalate), or accumulate as a product of anaerobic metabolism (lactate). Most other metabolites in plasma showed reduced levels in winter and were generally involved in energy metabolism including 11 amino acids (proline, isoleucine, leucine, valine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, arginine, tryptophan, methionine, threonine and histidine) and 4 carbohydrates (glucose, citrate, succinate, and malate). Pathway analysis indicated that aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, and nitrogen metabolism were potentially the most prominently altered pathways in overwintering frogs. Changes to these pathways are likely due to fasting and global metabolic depression in overwintering frogs. Concentrations of glucose and urea, commonly used as cryoprotectants by amphibians that winter on land, were significantly reduced during underwater hibernation in N. parkeri. In conclusion, winter survival of the high-altitude frog, N. parkeri was accompanied by substantial changes in metabolomic profiles and this study provides valuable information towards understanding the special adaptive mechanisms of N. parkeri to winter stresses.

Thermal acclimation has limited effect on the thermal tolerances of summer-collected Arctic and sub-Arctic wolf spiders

High-latitude ectotherms contend with large daily and seasonal temperature variation. Summer-collected wolf spiders (Araneae; Lycosidae) from sub-Arctic and Arctic habitats have been previously documented as having low temperature tolerance insufficient for surviving year-round in their habitat. We tested two competing hypotheses: that they would have broad thermal breadth, or that they would use plasticity to extend the range of their thermal performance. We collected Pardosa moesta and P. lapponica from the Yukon Territory, Canada, P. furcifera, P. groenlandica, and P. hyperborea from southern Greenland, and P. hyperborea from sub-Arctic Norway, and acclimated them to warm (12 or 20 °C) or cool (4 °C) conditions under constant light for one week. We measured critical thermal minimum (CT_min) or supercooling point (SCP) as a measure of lower thermal limit, and critical thermal maximum (CT_max) as a measure of upper thermal limit. We found relatively little impact of acclimation on thermal limits, and some counterintuitive responses; for example, warm acclimation decreased the SCP and/or cool acclimation increased the CT_max in several cases. Together, this meant that acclimation did not appear to modify the thermal breadth, which supports our first hypothesis, but allows us to reject the hypothesis that spiders use plasticity to fine-tune their thermal physiology, at least in the summer. We note that we still cannot explain how these spiders withstand the very cold winters, and speculate that there are acclimatisation cues or processes that we were unable to capture in our study.

Laboratory diet influences cold tolerance in a genotype-dependent manner in Drosophila melanogaster

Cold stress can reduce insect fitness and is an important determinant of species distributions and responses to climate change. Cold tolerance is influenced by genotype and environmental conditions, with factors such as day length and temperature having a particularly strong influence. Recent studies also indicate that diet impacts cold tolerance, but it is unclear whether diet-mediated shifts in cold tolerance are consistent across distinct genotypes. The goal of this study was to determine the extent to which commonly used artificial diets influence cold tolerance in Drosophila melanogaster, and whether these effects are consistent across genetically distinct lines. Specifically, we tested the impact of different fly diets on 1) ability to survive cold stress, 2) critical thermal minimum (CT_min), and 3) the ability to maintain reproduction after cold stress. Experiments were conducted across six isogenic lines from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel, and these lines were reared on different fly diets. Cold shock survival, CT_min, and reproductive output pre- and post-cold exposure varied considerably across diet and genotype combinations, suggesting strong genotype by environment interactions shape nutritionally mediated changes in cold tolerance. For example, in some lines cold shock survival remained consistently high or low across diets, while in others cold shock survival ranged from 5% to 75% depending on diet. Ultimately, these results add to a growing literature that cold tolerance is shaped by complex interactions between genotype and environment and inform practical considerations when selecting a laboratory diet for thermal tolerance experiments in Drosophila.

Nonlinear trends in abundance and diversity and complex responses to climate change in Arctic arthropods

Time series data on arthropod populations are critical for understanding the magnitude, direction, and drivers of change. However, most arthropod monitoring programs are short-lived and restricted in taxonomic resolution. Monitoring data from the Arctic are especially underrepresented, yet critical to uncovering and understanding some of the earliest biological responses to rapid environmental change. Clear imprints of climate on the behavior and life history of some Arctic arthropods have been demonstrated, but a synthesis of population-level abundance changes across taxa is lacking. We utilized 24 y of abundance data from Zackenberg in High-Arctic Greenland to assess trends in abundance and diversity and identify potential climatic drivers of abundance changes. Unlike findings from temperate systems, we found a nonlinear pattern, with total arthropod abundance gradually declining during 1996 to 2014, followed by a sharp increase. Family-level diversity showed the opposite pattern, suggesting increasing dominance of a small number of taxa. Total abundance masked more complicated trajectories of family-level abundance, which also frequently varied among habitats. Contrary to expectation in this extreme polar environment, winter and fall conditions and positive density-dependent feedbacks were more common determinants of arthropod dynamics than summer temperature. Together, these data highlight the complexity of characterizing climate change responses even in relatively simple Arctic food webs. Our results underscore the need for data reporting beyond overall trends in biomass or abundance and for including basic research on life history and ecology to achieve a more nuanced understanding of the sensitivity of Arctic and other arthropods to global changes.