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Mongue AJ, Martin SH, Manweiler REV, Scullion H, Koehn JL, de Roode JC, Walters JR. Genome sequence of Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, an apicomplexan parasite of monarch butterflies: cryptic diversity and response to host-sequestered plant chemicals. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:278. [PMID: 37226080 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09350-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexa are ancient and diverse organisms which have been poorly characterized by modern genomics. To better understand the evolution and diversity of these single-celled eukaryotes, we sequenced the genome of Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, a parasite of monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus. We contextualize our newly generated resources within apicomplexan genomics before answering longstanding questions specific to this host-parasite system. To start, the genome is miniscule, totaling only 9 million bases and containing fewer than 3,000 genes, half the gene content of two other sequenced invertebrate-infecting apicomplexans, Porospora gigantea and Gregarina niphandrodes. We found that O. elektroscirrha shares different orthologs with each sequenced relative, suggesting the true set of universally conserved apicomplexan genes is very small indeed. Next, we show that sequencing data from other potential host butterflies can be used to diagnose infection status as well as to study diversity of parasite sequences. We recovered a similarly sized parasite genome from another butterfly, Danaus chrysippus, that was highly diverged from the O. elektroscirrha reference, possibly representing a distinct species. Using these two new genomes, we investigated potential evolutionary response by parasites to toxic phytochemicals their hosts ingest and sequester. Monarch butterflies are well-known to tolerate toxic cardenolides thanks to changes in the sequence of their Type II ATPase sodium pumps. We show that Ophryocystis completely lacks Type II or Type 4 sodium pumps, and related proteins PMCA calcium pumps show extreme sequence divergence compared to other Apicomplexa, demonstrating new avenues of research opened by genome sequencing of non-model Apicomplexa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Mongue
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
| | - Simon H Martin
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rachel E V Manweiler
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
| | - Helena Scullion
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Jordyn L Koehn
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
| | | | - James R Walters
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
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Niitepõld K, Parry HA, Harris NR, Appel AG, de Roode JC, Kavazis AN, Hood WR. Flying on empty: Reduced mitochondrial function and flight capacity in food-deprived monarch butterflies. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275693. [PMID: 35694960 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial function is fundamental to organismal performance, health, and fitness - especially during energetically challenging events, such as migration. With this investigation, we evaluated mitochondrial sensitivity to ecologically relevant stressors. We focused on an iconic migrant, the North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), and examined the effects of two stressors: seven days of food deprivation, and infection by the protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (known to reduce survival and flight performance). We measured whole-animal resting (RMR) and peak flight metabolic rate, and mitochondrial respiration of isolated mitochondria from the flight muscles. Food deprivation reduced mass-independent RMR and peak flight metabolic rate, whereas infection did not. Fed monarchs used mainly lipids in flight (respiratory quotient 0.73), but the respiratory quotient dropped in food-deprived individuals, possibly indicating switching to alternative energy sources, such as ketone bodies. Food deprivation decreased mitochondrial maximum oxygen consumption but not basal respiration, resulting in lower respiratory control ratio (RCR). Furthermore, food deprivation decreased mitochondrial complex III activity, but increased complex IV activity. Infection did not result in any changes in these mitochondrial variables. Mitochondrial maximum respiration rate correlated positively with mass-independent RMR and flight metabolic rate, suggesting a link between mitochondria and whole-animal performance. In conclusion, low food availability negatively affects mitochondrial function and flight performance, with potential implications on migration, fitness, and population dynamics. Although previous studies have reported poor flight performance in infected monarchs, we found no differences in physiological performance, suggesting that reduced flight capacity may be due to structural differences or low energy stores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristjan Niitepõld
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.,The Finnish Science Centre Heureka, 01300 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Hailey A Parry
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Natalie R Harris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Arthur G Appel
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | | | | | - Wendy R Hood
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Dargent F, Gilmour SM, Brown EA, Kassen R, Kharouba HM. Low prevalence of the parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha at the range edge of the eastern North American monarch ( Danaus plexippus) butterfly population. CAN J ZOOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2020-0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Every year monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus (Linnaeus, 1758)) from the eastern North American population migrate from Mexico to southern Canada in the spring. This northward migration has been shown to reduce monarch infection with the host-specific parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha McLaughlin and Myers, 1970 (OE); yet, the prevalence of OE at their range limits and the mechanism(s) responsible are unknown. We assessed OE infection levels of monarchs at the northern edge of the eastern population distribution around Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, and found extremely low levels of infection (∼1% with upper confidence intervals close to 3%). Low OE infection levels are likely due to low densities of monarchs in this region and (or) migratory escape effects, where migrating individuals leave behind areas with high density of conspecifics and high potential for parasite accumulation and transmission. Future work should aim to disentangle the relative contribution of these two mechanisms for governing the decrease in parasitism at the range limits of migratory populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Dargent
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Sydney M. Gilmour
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Emma A. Brown
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Rees Kassen
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Heather M. Kharouba
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Private, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
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Decker LE, Jeffrey CS, Ochsenrider KM, Potts AS, de Roode JC, Smilanich AM, Hunter MD. Elevated atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 increase endogenous immune function in a specialist herbivore. J Anim Ecol 2020; 90:628-640. [PMID: 33241571 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Animals rely on a balance of endogenous and exogenous sources of immunity to mitigate parasite attack. Understanding how environmental context affects that balance is increasingly urgent under rapid environmental change. In herbivores, immunity is determined, in part, by phytochemistry which is plastic in response to environmental conditions. Monarch butterflies Danaus plexippus, consistently experience infection by a virulent parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, and some medicinal milkweed (Asclepias) species, with high concentrations of toxic steroids (cardenolides), provide a potent source of exogenous immunity. We investigated plant-mediated influences of elevated CO2 (eCO2 ) on endogenous immune responses of monarch larvae to infection by O. elektroscirrha. Recently, transcriptomics have revealed that infection by O. elektroscirrha does not alter monarch immune gene regulation in larvae, corroborating that monarchs rely more on exogenous than endogenous immunity. However, monarchs feeding on medicinal milkweed grown under eCO2 lose tolerance to the parasite, associated with changes in phytochemistry. Whether changes in milkweed phytochemistry induced by eCO2 alter the balance between exogenous and endogenous sources of immunity remains unknown. We fed monarchs two species of milkweed; A. curassavica (medicinal) and A. incarnata (non-medicinal) grown under ambient CO2 (aCO2 ) or eCO2 . We then measured endogenous immune responses (phenoloxidase activity, haemocyte concentration and melanization strength), along with foliar chemistry, to assess mechanisms of monarch immunity under future atmospheric conditions. The melanization response of late-instar larvae was reduced on medicinal milkweed in comparison to non-medicinal milkweed. Moreover, the endogenous immune responses of early-instar larvae to infection by O. elektroscirrha were generally lower in larvae reared on foliage from aCO2 plants and higher in larvae reared on foliage from eCO2 plants. When grown under eCO2 , milkweed plants exhibited lower cardenolide concentrations, lower phytochemical diversity and lower nutritional quality (higher C:N ratios). Together, these results suggest that the loss of exogenous immunity from foliage under eCO2 results in increased endogenous immune function. Animal populations face multiple threats induced by anthropogenic environmental change. Our results suggest that shifts in the balance between exogenous and endogenous sources of immunity to parasite attack may represent an underappreciated consequence of environmental change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie E Decker
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | | | - Abigail S Potts
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | | | - Mark D Hunter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Saul-Gershenz L, Grodsky SM, Hernandez RR. Ecology of the Western Queen Butterfly Danaus gilippus thersippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11050315. [PMID: 32438741 PMCID: PMC7290759 DOI: 10.3390/insects11050315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the ecological knowledge surrounding the western queen butterfly, Danaus gilippus thersippus (H. Bates). Specifically, our objectives were to synthesize existing data and knowledge on the ecology of the queen and use results of this assessment to inform the direction of future research on this understudied species. We identified six core areas for assessment: distribution, the biodiversity of plant resources, western queen and their host plant phenology, chemical ecology, and four key life history traits. We mapped the distribution of D. g. thersippus from museum specimen records, citizen science (e.g., iNaturalist) and image sharing app-based observations, along with other observational data enumerating all current known plant resources and long-range movements. We assembled 14 larval food plants, six pyrrolizidine alkaloids plants and six nectar plants distributed in the western Mojave and Sonoran Desert regions of the United States and Baja California. We report on its phenology and its long-range movement. Butterfly species have declined across the western US, and western monarch populations have declined by 97%. Danaus g. thersippus has received little research attention compared with its famous congener D. plexippus L. Danaus g. thersippus' desert distribution may be at its temperature limits for the species distribution and for its rare host plant Asclepias nyctaginifolia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Saul-Gershenz
- Wild Energy Initiative, John Muir Institute of the Environment, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA; (S.M.G.); (R.R.H.)
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, 1 Shields Ave., University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
- USDA-ARS, Invasive Species and Pollinator Health Research Unit, 3026 Bee Biology Rd, Davis, CA 95616, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Steven M. Grodsky
- Wild Energy Initiative, John Muir Institute of the Environment, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA; (S.M.G.); (R.R.H.)
| | - Rebecca R. Hernandez
- Wild Energy Initiative, John Muir Institute of the Environment, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616, USA; (S.M.G.); (R.R.H.)
- Department of Land, Air, and Water Resources, 1 Shields Ave., University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Gao K, Muijderman D, Nichols S, Heckel DG, Wang P, Zalucki MP, Groot AT. Parasite-host specificity: A cross-infection study of the parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha. J Invertebr Pathol 2020; 170:107328. [PMID: 31952966 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2020.107328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Many parasites are constrained to only one or a few hosts, showing host specificity. It remains unclear why some parasites are specialists and other parasites are generalists. The parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) is a neogregarine protozoan thought to be restricted to monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Nymphaliae) and D. gilippus. Recently, we found OE-like spores in other Lepidoptera, specifically in three noctuid moths: Helicoverpa armigera, H. assulta and H. punctigera, as well as another nymphalid, Parthenos sylvia. To our knowledge, this is the first report of OE-like parasite infections in species other than the genus Danaus. In sequencing 558 bp of 18S rRNA, we found the genetic similarity between OE from D. plexippus and OE-like parasite from the moths H. armigera and H. punctigera to be 95.2%. When we conducted cross-species infection experiments, we could not infect the moths with OE from D. plexippus, but OE-like parasite from H. armigera did infect D. plexippus and a closely related moth species Heliothis virescens. Interestingly, we did not find the OE-like parasite in the H. armigera population from Spain. Inter-population infection experiments with H. armigera demonstrated a higher sensitivity to OE-like infection in the population from Spain compared to the populations from Australia and China. These results suggest geographic variation in OE-like susceptibility and coevolution between parasite and host. Our findings give important new insights into the prevalence and host specificity of OE and OE-like parasites, and provide opportunities to study parasite transmission over spatial and temporal scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Gao
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Daphne Muijderman
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sarah Nichols
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - David G Heckel
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Entomology, Jena, Germany
| | - Peng Wang
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Myron P Zalucki
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Astrid T Groot
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Entomology, Jena, Germany
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Nail KR, Drizd L, Voorhies KJ. Butterflies Across the Globe: A Synthesis of the Current Status and Characteristics of Monarch (Danaus plexippus) Populations Worldwide. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Hoang K, Tao L, Hunter MD, de Roode JC. Host Diet Affects the Morphology of Monarch Butterfly Parasites. J Parasitol 2017; 103:228-236. [PMID: 28323544 DOI: 10.1645/16-142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding host-parasite interactions is essential for ecological research, wildlife conservation, and health management. While most studies focus on numerical traits of parasite groups, such as changes in parasite load, less focus is placed on the traits of individual parasites such as parasite size and shape (parasite morphology). Parasite morphology has significant effects on parasite fitness such as initial colonization of hosts, avoidance of host immune defenses, and the availability of resources for parasite replication. As such, understanding factors that affect parasite morphology is important in predicting the consequences of host-parasite interactions. Here, we studied how host diet affected the spore morphology of a protozoan parasite ( Ophryocystis elektroscirrha ), a specialist parasite of the monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus ). We found that different host plant species (milkweeds; Asclepias spp.) significantly affected parasite spore size. Previous studies have found that cardenolides, secondary chemicals in host plants of monarchs, can reduce parasite loads and increase the lifespan of infected butterflies. Adding to this benefit of high cardenolide milkweeds, we found that infected monarchs reared on milkweeds of higher cardenolide concentrations yielded smaller parasites, a potentially hidden characteristic of cardenolides that may have important implications for monarch-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Hoang
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30322. Correspondence should be sent to Kevin Hoang at:
| | - Leiling Tao
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30322. Correspondence should be sent to Kevin Hoang at:
| | - Mark D Hunter
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30322. Correspondence should be sent to Kevin Hoang at:
| | - Jacobus C de Roode
- Department of Biology, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30322. Correspondence should be sent to Kevin Hoang at:
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