1
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Mousavian Z, Källenius G, Sundling C. From simple to complex: Protein-based biomarker discovery in tuberculosis. Eur J Immunol 2023; 53:e2350485. [PMID: 37740950 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202350485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a deadly infectious disease that affects millions of people globally. TB proteomics signature discovery has been a rapidly growing area of research that aims to identify protein biomarkers for the early detection, diagnosis, and treatment monitoring of TB. In this review, we have highlighted recent advances in this field and how it is moving from the study of single proteins to high-throughput profiling and from only using proteomics to include additional types of data in multi-omics studies. We have further covered the different sample types and experimental technologies used in TB proteomics signature discovery, focusing on studies of HIV-negative adults. The published signatures were defined as either coming from hypothesis-based protein targeting or from unbiased discovery approaches. The methodological approaches influenced the type of proteins identified and were associated with the circulating protein abundance. However, both approaches largely identified proteins involved in similar biological pathways, including acute-phase responses and T-helper type 1 and type 17 responses. By analysing the frequency of proteins in the different signatures, we could also highlight potential robust biomarker candidates. Finally, we discuss the potential value of integration of multi-omics data and the importance of control cohorts and signature validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaynab Mousavian
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gunilla Källenius
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christopher Sundling
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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2
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Saraswati SSK, Rana AK, Singh A, Anang V, Singh A, Natarajan K. HSP-27 and HSP-70 negatively regulate protective defence responses from macrophages during mycobacterial infection. Microbes Infect 2023; 25:105126. [PMID: 36931492 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2023.105126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis attenuates many defence responses from alveolar macrophages to create a niche at sites of infection in the human lung. Levels of Heat Shock Proteins have been reported to increase many folds in the serum of active TB patients than in latently infected individuals. Here we investigated the regulation of key defence responses by HSPs during mycobacterial infection. We show that infection of macrophages with M. bovis BCG induces higher expression of HSP-27 and HSP-70. Inhibiting HSP-27 and HSP-70 prior to mycobacterial infection leads to a significant decrease in mycobacterial growth inside macrophages. Further, inhibiting HSPs resulted in a significant increase in intracellular oxidative burst levels. This was accompanied by an increase in the levels of T cell activation molecules CD40 and IL-12 receptor and a concomitant decrease in the levels of T cell inhibitory molecules PD-L1 and IL-10 receptor. Furthermore, inhibiting HSPs significantly increased the expression of key proteins in the autophagy pathway along with increased activation of pro-inflammatory promoting transcription factors NF-κB and p-CREB. Interestingly, we also show that both HSP-27 and HSP-70 are associated with anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Beclin-1. These results point towards a suppressive role for host HSP-27 and HSP-70 during mycobacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ankush Kumar Rana
- Infectious Disease Immunology Laboratory, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Aayushi Singh
- Infectious Disease Immunology Laboratory, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Vandana Anang
- Infectious Disease Immunology Laboratory, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Aarti Singh
- Infectious Disease Immunology Laboratory, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Krishnamurthy Natarajan
- Infectious Disease Immunology Laboratory, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
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3
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Kwon KW, Kang TG, Lee A, Jin SM, Lim YT, Shin SJ, Ha SJ. Protective Efficacy and Immunogenicity of Rv0351/Rv3628 Subunit Vaccine Formulated in Different Adjuvants Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. Immune Netw 2023; 23:e16. [PMID: 37179749 PMCID: PMC10166659 DOI: 10.4110/in.2023.23.e16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine is the only licensed vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) prevention. Previously, our group demonstrated the vaccine potential of Rv0351 and Rv3628 against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection by directing Th1-biased CD4+ T cells co-expressing IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 in the lungs. Here, we assessed immunogenicity and vaccine potential of the combined Ags (Rv0351/Rv3628) formulated in different adjuvants as subunit booster in BCG-primed mice against hypervirulent clinical Mtb strain K (Mtb K). Compared to BCG-only or subunit-only vaccine, BCG prime and subunit boost regimen exhibited significantly enhanced Th1 response. Next, we evaluated the immunogenicity to the combined Ags when formulated with four different types of monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL)-based adjuvants: 1) dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDA), MPL, and trehalose dicorynomycolate (TDM) in liposome form (DMT), 2) MPL and Poly I:C in liposome form (MP), 3) MPL, Poly I:C, and QS21 in liposome form (MPQ), and 4) MPL and Poly I:C in squalene emulsion form (MPS). MPQ and MPS displayed greater adjuvancity in Th1 induction than DMT or MP did. Especially, BCG prime and subunit-MPS boost regimen significantly reduced the bacterial loads and pulmonary inflammation against Mtb K infection when compared to BCG-only vaccine at a chronic stage of TB disease. Collectively, our findings highlighted the importance of adjuvant components and formulation to induce the enhanced protection with an optimal Th1 response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kee Woong Kwon
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Brain Korea 21 Project, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Tae Gun Kang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 (BK21) FOUR Program, Yonsei Education & Research Center for Biosystems, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Ara Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 (BK21) FOUR Program, Yonsei Education & Research Center for Biosystems, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Seung Mo Jin
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Department of Nano Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Korea
| | - Yong Taik Lim
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Department of Nano Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon 16419, Korea
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Brain Korea 21 Project, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Sang-Jun Ha
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 (BK21) FOUR Program, Yonsei Education & Research Center for Biosystems, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
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4
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Barakat A, Birkeland E, Jørstad MD, El Hajj M, Marijani M, Døskeland A, Mjaavatten O, Berven FS, Mustafa T. Proteomic analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis: A pilot study from Zanzibar, Tanzania. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281757. [PMID: 36787336 PMCID: PMC9928017 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed at exploring the proteomic profile of PBMCs to predict treatment response in pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). This was a pilot study conducted among 8 adult patients from Zanzibar, Tanzania with confirmed PTB. Blood samples were collected at baseline, at 2 months of treatment, and at the end of treatment at 6 months. Proteins were extracted from PBMCs and analyzed using LC-MS/MS based label free quantitative proteomics. Overall, 3,530 proteins were quantified across the samples, and 12 differentially expressed proteins were identified at both 2 months of treatment and at treatment completion, which were involved in cellular and metabolic processes, as well as binding and catalytic activity. Seven were downregulated proteins (HSPA1B/HSPA1A, HSPH1, HSP90AA1, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, complement component 9, calcyclin-binding protein, and protein transport protein Sec31A), and 5 proteins were upregulated (SEC14 domain and spectrin repeat-containing protein 1, leucine-rich repeat-containing 8 VRAC subunit D, homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase, NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 regulatory subunit, and N-acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase-like protein). The results showed that proteome analysis of PBMCs can be used as a novel technique to identify protein abundance change with anti-tuberculosis treatment. The novel proteins elucidated in this work may provide new insights for understanding PTB pathogenesis, treatment, and prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Barakat
- Centre for International Health, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Even Birkeland
- Proteomics Unit at University of Bergen (PROBE), Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Melissa D. Jørstad
- Centre for International Health, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Thoracic Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Magalie El Hajj
- Centre for International Health, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Medical Affairs, Partner 4 Health, Paris, France
| | - Msafiri Marijani
- Department of Diagnostic Services, Mnazi Mmoja Hospital, Zanzibar, The United Republic of Tanzania
| | - Anne Døskeland
- Proteomics Unit at University of Bergen (PROBE), Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Olav Mjaavatten
- Proteomics Unit at University of Bergen (PROBE), Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Frode S. Berven
- Proteomics Unit at University of Bergen (PROBE), Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Tehmina Mustafa
- Centre for International Health, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Thoracic Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
- * E-mail:
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5
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Hu C, Yang J, Qi Z, Wu H, Wang B, Zou F, Mei H, Liu J, Wang W, Liu Q. Heat shock proteins: Biological functions, pathological roles, and therapeutic opportunities. MedComm (Beijing) 2022; 3:e161. [PMID: 35928554 PMCID: PMC9345296 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The heat shock proteins (HSPs) are ubiquitous and conserved protein families in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, and they maintain cellular proteostasis and protect cells from stresses. HSP protein families are classified based on their molecular weights, mainly including large HSPs, HSP90, HSP70, HSP60, HSP40, and small HSPs. They function as molecular chaperons in cells and work as an integrated network, participating in the folding of newly synthesized polypeptides, refolding metastable proteins, protein complex assembly, dissociating protein aggregate dissociation, and the degradation of misfolded proteins. In addition to their chaperone functions, they also play important roles in cell signaling transduction, cell cycle, and apoptosis regulation. Therefore, malfunction of HSPs is related with many diseases, including cancers, neurodegeneration, and other diseases. In this review, we describe the current understandings about the molecular mechanisms of the major HSP families including HSP90/HSP70/HSP60/HSP110 and small HSPs, how the HSPs keep the protein proteostasis and response to stresses, and we also discuss their roles in diseases and the recent exploration of HSP related therapy and diagnosis to modulate diseases. These research advances offer new prospects of HSPs as potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Hu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Jing Yang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Ziping Qi
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Hong Wu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Beilei Wang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Fengming Zou
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Husheng Mei
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Jing Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Wenchao Wang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui P. R. China
| | - Qingsong Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Medical Physics and Technology Institute of Health and Medical Technology Hefei Institutes of Physical Science Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Hefei Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Sciences Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui P. R. China.,Precision Medicine Research Laboratory of Anhui Province Hefei Anhui P. R. China
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6
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Bioanalytical methods encompassing label-free and labeled tuberculosis aptasensors: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1234:340326. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.340326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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7
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Saad MG, Beyenal H, Dong WJ. Exosomes as Powerful Engines in Cancer: Isolation, Characterization and Detection Techniques. BIOSENSORS 2021; 11:518. [PMID: 34940275 PMCID: PMC8699402 DOI: 10.3390/bios11120518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes, powerful extracellular nanovesicles released from almost all types of living cells, are considered the communication engines (messengers) that control and reprogram physiological pathways inside target cells within a community or between different communities. The cell-like structure of these extracellular vesicles provides a protective environment for their proteins and DNA/RNA cargos, which serve as biomarkers for many malicious diseases, including infectious diseases and cancers. Cancer-derived exosomes control cancer metastasis, prognosis, and development. In addition to the unique structure of exosomes, their nanometer size and tendency of interacting with cells makes them a viable novel drug delivery solution. In recent years, numerous research efforts have been made to quantify and characterize disease-derived exosomes for diagnosis, monitoring, and therapeutic purposes. This review aims to (1) relate exosome biomarkers to their origins, (2) focus on current isolation and detection methods, (3) discuss and evaluate the proposed technologies deriving from exosome research for cancer treatment, and (4) form a conclusion about the prospects of the current exosome research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Wen-Ji Dong
- The Gene and Linda Voiland School of Chemical Engineering and Bioengineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA; (M.G.S.); (H.B.)
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8
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de Lima JB, da Silva Fonseca LP, Xavier LP, de Matos Macchi B, Cassoli JS, da Silva EO, da Silva Valadares RB, do Nascimento JLM, Santos AV, de Sena CBC. Culture of Mycobacterium smegmatis in Different Carbon Sources to Induce In Vitro Cholesterol Consumption Leads to Alterations in the Host Cells after Infection: A Macrophage Proteomics Analysis. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10060662. [PMID: 34071265 PMCID: PMC8230116 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10060662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
During tuberculosis, Mycobacterium uses host macrophage cholesterol as a carbon and energy source. To mimic these conditions, Mycobacterium smegmatis can be cultured in minimal medium (MM) to induce cholesterol consumption in vitro. During cultivation, M. smegmatis consumes MM cholesterol and changes the accumulation of cell wall compounds, such as PIMs, LM, and LAM, which plays an important role in its pathogenicity. These changes lead to cell surface hydrophobicity modifications and H2O2 susceptibility. Furthermore, when M. smegmatis infects J774A.1 macrophages, it induces granuloma-like structure formation. The present study aims to assess macrophage molecular disturbances caused by M. smegmatis after cholesterol consumption, using proteomics analyses. Proteins that showed changes in expression levels were analyzed in silico using OmicsBox and String analysis to investigate the canonical pathways and functional networks involved in infection. Our results demonstrate that, after cholesterol consumption, M. smegmatis can induce deregulation of protein expression in macrophages. Many of these proteins are related to cytoskeleton remodeling, immune response, the ubiquitination pathway, mRNA processing, and immunometabolism. The identification of these proteins sheds light on the biochemical pathways involved in the mechanisms of action of mycobacteria infection, and may suggest novel protein targets for the development of new and improved treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaqueline Batista de Lima
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (J.B.d.L.); (E.O.d.S.)
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Enzymes and Biotransformations, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (L.P.X.); (A.V.S.)
| | | | - Luciana Pereira Xavier
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Enzymes and Biotransformations, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (L.P.X.); (A.V.S.)
| | - Barbarella de Matos Macchi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurochemistry, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (B.d.M.M.); (J.L.M.d.N.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Neuroimmunomodulation (INCT-NIM), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
| | - Juliana Silva Cassoli
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil;
| | - Edilene Oliveira da Silva
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (J.B.d.L.); (E.O.d.S.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Structural Biology and Bioimaging, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - José Luiz Martins do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurochemistry, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (B.d.M.M.); (J.L.M.d.N.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Neuroimmunomodulation (INCT-NIM), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
| | - Agenor Valadares Santos
- Laboratory of Biotechnology of Enzymes and Biotransformations, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (L.P.X.); (A.V.S.)
| | - Chubert Bernardo Castro de Sena
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil; (J.B.d.L.); (E.O.d.S.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Neuroimmunomodulation (INCT-NIM), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
- Correspondence:
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Mirzaei R, Babakhani S, Ajorloo P, Ahmadi RH, Hosseini-Fard SR, Keyvani H, Ahmadyousefi Y, Teimoori A, Zamani F, Karampoor S, Yousefimashouf R. The emerging role of exosomal miRNAs as a diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Mol Med 2021; 27:34. [PMID: 33794771 PMCID: PMC8017856 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-021-00296-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), has been the world's driving fatal bacterial contagious disease globally. It continues a public health emergency, and around one-third of the global community has been affected by latent TB infection (LTBI). This is mostly due to the difficulty in diagnosing and treating patients with TB and LTBI. Exosomes are nanovesicles (40-100 nm) released from different cell types, containing proteins, lipids, mRNA, and miRNA, and they allow the transfer of one's cargo to other cells. The functional and diagnostic potential of exosomal miRNAs has been demonstrated in bacterial infections, including TB. Besides, it has been recognized that cells infected by intracellular pathogens such as Mtb can be secreting an exosome, which is implicated in the infection's fate. Exosomes, therefore, open a unique viewpoint on the investigative process of TB pathogenicity. This study explores the possible function of exosomal miRNAs as a diagnostic biomarker. Moreover, we include the latest data on the pathogenic and therapeutic role of exosomal miRNAs in TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasoul Mirzaei
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran. .,Venom and Biotherapeutics Molecules Lab, Medical Biotechnology Department, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Sajad Babakhani
- Department of Microbiology, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parisa Ajorloo
- Department of Biology, Sciences and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Razieh Heidari Ahmadi
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technology, Tehran Medical Sciences Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Reza Hosseini-Fard
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Keyvani
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yaghoub Ahmadyousefi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.,Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Ali Teimoori
- Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Farhad Zamani
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sajad Karampoor
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Rasoul Yousefimashouf
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran. .,Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.
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10
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Biadglegne F, König B, Rodloff AC, Dorhoi A, Sack U. Composition and Clinical Significance of Exosomes in Tuberculosis: A Systematic Literature Review. J Clin Med 2021; 10:E145. [PMID: 33406750 PMCID: PMC7795701 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10010145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major health issue worldwide. In order to contain TB infections, improved vaccines as well as accurate and reliable diagnostic tools are desirable. Exosomes are employed for the diagnosis of various diseases. At present, research on exosomes in TB is still at the preliminary stage. Recent studies have described isolation and characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) derived exosomes in vivo and in vitro. Mtb-derived exosomes (Mtbexo) may be critical for TB pathogenesis by delivering mycobacterial-derived components to the recipient cells. Proteomic and transcriptomic analysis of Mtbexo have revealed a variety of proteins and miRNA, which are utilized by the TB bacteria for pathogenesis. Exosomes has been isolated in body fluids, are amenable for fast detection, and could contribute as diagnostic or prognostic biomarker to disease control. Extraction of exosomes from biological fluids is essential for the exosome research and requires careful standardization for TB. In this review, we summarized the different studies on Mtbexo molecules, including protein and miRNA and the method used to detect exosomes in biological fluids and cell culture supernatants. Thus, the detection of Mtbexo molecules in biological fluids may have a potential to expedite the diagnosis of TB infection. Moreover, the analysis of Mtbexo may generate new aspects in vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fantahun Biadglegne
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, 79 Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.K.); (A.C.R.)
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Brigitte König
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.K.); (A.C.R.)
| | - Arne C. Rodloff
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (B.K.); (A.C.R.)
| | - Anca Dorhoi
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Ulrich Sack
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
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Tang Y, Guo F, Lei A, Xiang J, Liu P, Ten W, Dai G, Li R. GrpE Immunization Protects Against Ureaplasma urealyticum Infection in BALB/C Mice. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1495. [PMID: 32849509 PMCID: PMC7411329 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide exchange factor (GrpE), a highly conserved antigen, is rapidly expressed and upregulated when Ureaplasma urealyticum infects a host, which could act as a candidative vaccine if it can induce an anti-U. urealyticum immune reaction. Here, we evaluated the vaccine potential of recombinant GrpE protein adjuvanted by Freund's adjuvant (FA), to protect against U. urealyticum genital tract infection in a mouse model. After booster immunization in mice with FA, the GrpE can induced both humoral and cellular immune response after intramuscular injection into BALB/c mice. A strong humoral immune response was detected in the GrpE-immunized mice characterized by production of high titers of antigen-specific serum IgG (IgG1, IgG2a, and IgG3) antibodies. At the same time, the GrpE also induced a Th1-biased cytokine spectrum with high levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α after re-stimulation with immunogen GrpE in vitro, suggesting that GrpE could trigger the Th1 response when used for vaccination in the presence of FA. Although GrpE vaccination in the presence of a Th1-type adjuvant-induced had readily detectable Th1 responses, there wasn't increase inflammation in response to the infection. More importantly, the robust immune responses in mice after immunization with GrpE showed a significantly reduced U. urealyticum burden in cervical tissues. Histopathological analysis confirmed that tissues of GrpE-immunized BALB/c mice were protected against the pathological effects of U. urealyticum infection. In conclusion, this study preliminarily reveals GrpE protein as a promising new candidate vaccine for preventing U. urealyticum reproductive tract infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Tang
- Chenzhou Hospital Affiliated to University of South China, Hunan, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Pathogenic Biology Institute, Medical College, University of South China, Hunan, China.,The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Fangyi Guo
- Chenzhou Hospital Affiliated to University of South China, Hunan, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Pathogenic Biology Institute, Medical College, University of South China, Hunan, China.,The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Aihua Lei
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Pathogenic Biology Institute, Medical College, University of South China, Hunan, China
| | - Jing Xiang
- The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Pengqin Liu
- The First People's Hospital of Huaihua, Hunan, China
| | - Wenyou Ten
- The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Guozhi Dai
- Chenzhou Hospital Affiliated to University of South China, Hunan, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Pathogenic Biology Institute, Medical College, University of South China, Hunan, China.,The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Ranhui Li
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Pathogenic Biology Institute, Medical College, University of South China, Hunan, China
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13
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Heat shock proteins in infection. Clin Chim Acta 2019; 498:90-100. [PMID: 31437446 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2019.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are constitutively expressed under physiological conditions in most organisms but their expression can significantly enhance in response to four types of stimuli including physical (e.g., radiation or heat shock), chemical and microbial (e.g., pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi) stimuli, and also dietary. These proteins were identified for their role in protecting cells from high temperature and other forms of stress. HSPs control physiological activities or virulence through interaction with various regulators of cellular signaling pathways. Several roles were determined for HSPs in the immune system including intracellular roles (e.g., antigen presentation and expression of innate receptors) as well as extracellular roles (e.g., tumor immunosurveillance and autoimmunity). It was observed that exogenously administered HSPs induced various immune responses in immunotherapy of cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmunity. Moreover, virus interaction with HSPs as molecular chaperones showed important roles in regulating viral infections including cell entry and nuclear import, viral replication and gene expression, folding/assembly of viral protein, apoptosis regulation, and host immunity. Viruses could regulate host HSPs at different levels such as transcription, translation, post-translational modification and cellular localization. In this review, we attempt to overview the roles of HSPs in a variety of infectious diseases.
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14
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Host derived exosomes-pathogens interactions: Potential functions of exosomes in pathogen infection. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 108:1451-1459. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.09.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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15
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Kim WS, Kim JS, Kim HM, Kwon KW, Eum SY, Shin SJ. Comparison of immunogenicity and vaccine efficacy between heat-shock proteins, HSP70 and GrpE, in the DnaK operon of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14411. [PMID: 30258084 PMCID: PMC6158166 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32799-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antigens (Ags) in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that are constitutively expressed, overexpressed during growth, essential for survival, and highly conserved may be good vaccine targets if they induce the appropriate anti-Mtb Th1 immune response. In this context, stress response-related antigens of Mtb might serve as attractive targets for vaccine development as they are rapidly expressed and are up-regulated during Mtb infection in vivo. Our group recently demonstrated that GrpE, encoded by rv0351 as a cofactor of heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) in the DnaK operon, is a novel immune activator that interacts with DCs to generate Th1-biased memory T cells in an antigen-specific manner. In this study, GrpE was evaluated as a subunit vaccine in comparison with the well-known HSP70 against the hyper-virulent Mtb Beijing K-strain. Both HSP70- and GrpE-specific effector/memory T cells expanded to a similar extent as those stimulated with ESAT-6 in the lung and spleen of Mtb-infected mice, but GrpE only produced a similar level of IFN-γ to that produced by ESAT-6 stimulation during the late phase and the early phase of Mtb K infection, indicating that GrpE is highly-well recognised by the host immune system as a T cell antigen. Mice immunised with the GrpE subunit vaccine displayed enhanced antigen-specific IFN-γ and serum IgG2c responses along with antigen-specific effector/memory T cell expansion in the lungs. In addition, GrpE-immunisation markedly induced multifunctional Th1-type CD4+ T cells co-expressing IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 in the lungs of Mtb K-infected mice, whereas HSP70-immunisation induced mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses. GrpE-immunisation conferred a more significant protective effect than that of HSP70-immunisation in terms of bacterial reduction and improved inflammation, accompanied by the remarkable persistence of GrpE-specific multifunctional CD4+ T cells. These results suggest that GrpE is an excellent vaccine antigen component for the development of a multi-antigenic Mtb subunit vaccine by generating Th1-biased memory T cells with multifunctional capacity, and confers durable protection against the highly virulent Mtb K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo Sik Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.,Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, South Korea
| | - Jong-Seok Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.,Myunggok Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Hong Min Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kee Woong Kwon
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seok-Yong Eum
- Division of Immunopathology and Cellular Immunology, International Tuberculosis Research Center, Changwon, South Korea
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Disease, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
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16
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You X, Li R, Wan K, Liu L, Xie X, Zhao L, Wu N, Deng X, Wang L, Zeng Y. Evaluation of Rv0220, Rv2958c, Rv2994 and Rv3347c of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for serodiagnosis of tuberculosis. Microb Biotechnol 2017; 10:604-611. [PMID: 28217905 PMCID: PMC5404193 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), the leading cause of death among infectious diseases worldwide, is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). Early accurate diagnosis means earlier prevention, treatment and control of TB. To confirm efficient diagnostic antigens for M. tuberculosis, the serodiagnosis value of four recombinant proteins including Rv0220, Rv2958c, Rv2994 and Rv3347c was evaluated in this study. The specificities and sensitivities of four recombinant proteins were determined based on enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) by screening sera from smear‐positive pulmonary TB patients (n = 92), uninfected individuals (n = 60) and patients with Mycoplasma pneumoniae (n = 32) that potentially cross‐react with M. tuberculosis. The ELISAs showed that Rv0220, Rv2958c, Rv2994 and Rv3347c exhibited high specificities and sensitivities in detecting immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody, with 98.3/91.3%, 91.7/85.9%, 93.3/89.1% and 93.3/80.4% respectively. According to the receiver‐operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, the area under the ROC of the target proteins was 0.988, 0.969, 0.929 and 0.945 respectively. Western blot was established to evaluate the immunoreactivities of target proteins to mice and human sera. Results demonstrated that Rv0220, Rv2958c, Rv2994 and Rv3347c could specifically recognize TB‐positive sera and the sera of mice immunized with the corresponding protein. Thus, Rv0220, Rv2958c, Rv2994 and Rv3347c were valuable potential diagnostic antigens for M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong You
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Clinical laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, 421000, China
| | - Ranhui Li
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Kanglin Wan
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control/National Institute for communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Liangzhuan Liu
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Xiaoping Xie
- Clinical laboratory, Hengyang No.1 People's Hospital, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Lanhua Zhao
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Ning Wu
- Clinical laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, 421000, China
| | - Xiangying Deng
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Li Wang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Yanhua Zeng
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hengyang, 421001, China.,Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, 421001, China
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17
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Diaz G, Wolfe LM, Kruh-Garcia NA, Dobos KM. Changes in the Membrane-Associated Proteins of Exosomes Released from Human Macrophages after Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37975. [PMID: 27897233 PMCID: PMC5126699 DOI: 10.1038/srep37975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is the deadliest infectious disease worldwide. One obstacle hindering the elimination of TB is our lack of understanding of host-pathogen interactions. Exosomes, naturally loaded with microbial molecules, are circulating markers of TB. Changes in the host protein composition of exosomes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)-infected cells have not been described, can contribute to our understanding of the disease process, and serve as a direct source of biomarkers or as capture targets to enrich for exosomes containing microbial molecules. Here, the protein composition of exosomes from Mtb-infected and uninfected THP-1-derived macrophages was evaluated by tandem-mass-spectrometry and differences in protein abundances were assessed. Our results show that infection with Mtb leads to significant changes in the protein composition of exosomes. Specifically, 41 proteins were significantly more abundant in exosomes from Mtb-infected cells; 63% of these were predicted to be membrane associated. Thus, we used a novel biotinylation strategy to verify protein localization, and confirmed the localization of some of these proteins in the exosomal membrane. Our findings reveal another important scenario where Mtb could be influencing changes in host cells that unveil new features of the host-pathogen interaction and may also be exploited as a source of biomarkers for TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Diaz
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lisa M Wolfe
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Facility, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Nicole A Kruh-Garcia
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Karen M Dobos
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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