1
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King E, Cui Y, Aspacio D, Nicklen F, Zhang L, Maxel S, Luo R, Siegel JB, Aitchison E, Li H. Engineering Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Glycolysis to Generate Noncanonical Reducing Power. ACS Catal 2022; 12:8582-8592. [PMID: 37622090 PMCID: PMC10449333 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c01837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Noncanonical cofactors such as nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN+) supplant the electron-transfer functionality of the natural cofactors, NAD(P)+, at a lower cost in cell-free biomanufacturing and enable orthogonal electron delivery in whole-cell metabolic engineering. Here, we redesign the high-flux Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) glycolytic pathway to generate NMN+-based reducing power, by engineering Streptococcus mutans glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (Sm GapN) to utilize NMN+. Through iterative rounds of rational design, we discover the variant GapN Penta (P179K-F153S-S330R-I234E-G210Q) with high NMN+-dependent activity and GapN Ortho (P179K-F153S-S330R-I234E-G214E) with ~3.4 × 106-fold switch in cofactor specificity from its native cofactor NADP+ to NMN+. GapN Ortho is further demonstrated to function in Escherichia coli only in the presence of NMN+, enabling orthogonal control of glucose utilization. Molecular dynamics simulation and residue network connectivity analysis indicate that mutations altering cofactor specificity must be coordinated to maintain the appropriate degree of backbone flexibility to position the catalytic cysteine. These results provide a strategy to guide future designs of NMN+-dependent enzymes and establish the initial steps toward an orthogonal EMP pathway with biomanufacturing potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward King
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Youtian Cui
- Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Derek Aspacio
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Frances Nicklen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Linyue Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Sarah Maxel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Ray Luo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Justin B Siegel
- Department of Chemistry, Genome Center, and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Erick Aitchison
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Han Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
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Study of ALDH from Thermus thermophilus-Expression, Purification and Characterisation of the Non-Substrate Specific, Thermophilic Enzyme Displaying Both Dehydrogenase and Esterase Activity. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123535. [PMID: 34944041 PMCID: PMC8699947 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH), found in all kingdoms of life, form a superfamily of enzymes that primarily catalyse the oxidation of aldehydes to form carboxylic acid products, while utilising the cofactor NAD(P)+. Some superfamily members can also act as esterases using p-nitrophenyl esters as substrates. The ALDHTt from Thermus thermophilus was recombinantly expressed in E. coli and purified to obtain high yields (approximately 15–20 mg/L) and purity utilising an efficient heat treatment step coupled with IMAC and gel filtration chromatography. The use of the heat treatment step proved critical, in its absence decreased yield of 40% was observed. Characterisation of the thermophilic ALDHTt led to optimum enzymatic working conditions of 50 °C, and a pH of 8. ALDHTt possesses dual enzymatic activity, with the ability to act as a dehydrogenase and an esterase. ALDHTt possesses broad substrate specificity, displaying activity for a range of aldehydes, most notably hexanal and the synthetic dialdehyde, terephthalaldehyde. Interestingly, para-substituted benzaldehydes could be processed efficiently, but ortho-substitution resulted in no catalytic activity. Similarly, ALDHTt displayed activity for two different esterase substrates, p-nitrophenyl acetate and p-nitrophenyl butyrate, but with activities of 22.9% and 8.9%, respectively, compared to the activity towards hexanal.
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3
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Modification of the glycolytic pathway in Pyrococcus furiosus and the implications for metabolic engineering. Extremophiles 2020; 24:511-518. [PMID: 32415359 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-020-01172-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The key difference in the modified Embden-Meyerhof glycolytic pathway in hyperthermophilic Archaea, such as Pyrococcus furiosus, occurs at the conversion from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) to 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG) where the typical intermediate 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) is not present. The absence of the ATP-yielding step catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) alters energy yield, redox energetics, and kinetics of carbohydrate metabolism. Either of the two enzymes, ferredoxin-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (GAPOR) or NADP+-dependent non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPN), responsible for this "bypass" reaction, could be deleted individually without impacting viability, albeit with differences in native fermentation product profiles. Furthermore, P. furiosus was viable in the gluconeogenic direction (growth on pyruvate or peptides plus elemental sulfur) in a ΔgapnΔgapor strain. Ethanol was utilized as a proxy for potential heterologous products (e.g., isopropanol, butanol, fatty acids) that require reducing equivalents (e.g., NAD(P)H, reduced ferredoxin) generated from glycolysis. Insertion of a single gene encoding the thermostable NADPH-dependent primary alcohol dehydrogenase (adhA) (Tte_0696) from Caldanaerobacter subterraneus, resulted in a strain producing ethanol via the previously established aldehyde oxidoreductase (AOR) pathway. This strain demonstrated a high ratio of ethanol over acetate (> 8:1) at 80 °C and enabled ethanol production up to 85 °C, the highest temperature for bio-ethanol production reported to date.
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Wang Y, Li PY, Zhang Y, Cao HY, Wang YJ, Li CY, Wang P, Su HN, Chen Y, Chen XL, Zhang YZ. 3,6-Anhydro-L-Galactose Dehydrogenase VvAHGD is a Member of a New Aldehyde Dehydrogenase Family and Catalyzes by a Novel Mechanism with Conformational Switch of Two Catalytic Residues Cysteine 282 and Glutamate 248. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:2186-2203. [PMID: 32087198 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
3,6-anhydro-α-L-galactose (L-AHG) is one of the main monosaccharide constituents of red macroalgae. In the recently discovered bacterial L-AHG catabolic pathway, L-AHG is first oxidized by a NAD(P)+-dependent dehydrogenase (AHGD), which is a key step of this pathway. However, the catalytic mechanism(s) of AHGDs is still unclear. Here, we identified and characterized an AHGD from marine bacterium Vibrio variabilis JCM 19239 (VvAHGD). The NADP+-dependent VvAHGD could efficiently oxidize L-AHG. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that VvAHGD and its homologs represent a new aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) family with different substrate preferences from reported ALDH families, named the L-AHGDH family. To explain the catalytic mechanism of VvAHGD, we solved the structures of VvAHGD in the apo form and complex with NADP+ and modeled its structure with L-AHG. Based on structural, mutational, and biochemical analyses, the cofactor channel and the substrate channel of VvAHGD are identified, and the key residues involved in the binding of NADP+ and L-AHG and the catalysis are revealed. VvAHGD performs catalysis by controlling the consecutive connection and interruption of the cofactor channel and the substrate channel via the conformational changes of its two catalytic residues Cys282 and Glu248. Comparative analyses of structures and enzyme kinetics revealed that differences in the substrate channels (in shape, size, electrostatic surface, and residue composition) lead to the different substrate preferences of VvAHGD from other ALDHs. This study on VvAHGD sheds light on the diversified catalytic mechanisms and evolution of NAD(P)+-dependent ALDHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Ping-Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Hai-Yan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yan-Jun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Chun-Yang Li
- College of Marine Life Sciences, and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Peng Wang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Hai-Nan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yin Chen
- College of Marine Life Sciences, and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Xiu-Lan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China.
| | - Yu-Zhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China; College of Marine Life Sciences, and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China.
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5
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Hayes K, Noor M, Djeghader A, Armshaw P, Pembroke T, Tofail S, Soulimane T. The quaternary structure of Thermus thermophilus aldehyde dehydrogenase is stabilized by an evolutionary distinct C-terminal arm extension. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13327. [PMID: 30190503 PMCID: PMC6127216 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31724-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) form a superfamily of dimeric or tetrameric enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of a broad range of aldehydes into their corresponding carboxylic acids with the concomitant reduction of the cofactor NAD(P) into NAD(P)H. Despite their varied polypeptide chain length and oligomerisation states, ALDHs possess a conserved architecture of three domains: the catalytic domain, NAD(P)+ binding domain, and the oligomerization domain. Here, we describe the structure and function of the ALDH from Thermus thermophilus (ALDHTt) which exhibits non-canonical features of both dimeric and tetrameric ALDH and a previously uncharacterized C-terminal arm extension forming novel interactions with the N-terminus in the quaternary structure. This unusual tail also interacts closely with the substrate entry tunnel in each monomer providing further mechanistic detail for the recent discovery of tail-mediated activity regulation in ALDH. However, due to the novel distal extension of the tail of ALDHTt and stabilizing termini-interactions, the current model of tail-mediated substrate access is not apparent in ALDHTt. The discovery of such a long tail in a deeply and early branching phylum such as Deinococcus-Thermus indicates that ALDHTt may be an ancestral or primordial metabolic model of study. This structure provides invaluable evidence of how metabolic regulation has evolved and provides a link to early enzyme regulatory adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Hayes
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Mohamed Noor
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Ahmed Djeghader
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Patricia Armshaw
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Tony Pembroke
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Syed Tofail
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.,Physics Department, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Tewfik Soulimane
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland. .,Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland.
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Ochoa-Montaño B, Blundell TL. XSuLT: a web server for structural annotation and representation of sequence-structure alignments. Nucleic Acids Res 2017; 45:W381-W387. [PMID: 28510698 PMCID: PMC5793734 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkx421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The web server XSuLT, an enhanced version of the protein alignment annotation program JoY, formats a submitted multiple-sequence alignment using three-dimensional (3D) structural information in order to assist in the comparative analysis of protein evolution and in the optimization of alignments for comparative modelling and construct design. In addition to the features analysed by JoY, which include secondary structure, solvent accessibility and sidechain hydrogen bonds, XSuLT annotates each amino acid residue with residue depth, chain and ligand interactions, inter-residue contacts, sequence entropy, root mean square deviation and secondary structure and disorder prediction. It is also now integrated with built-in 3D visualization which interacts with the formatted alignment to facilitate inspection and understanding. Results can be downloaded as stand-alone HTML for the formatted alignment and as XML with the underlying annotation data. XSuLT is freely available at http://structure.bioc.cam.ac.uk/xsult/.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom L Blundell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK
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7
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Crabo AG, Singh B, Nguyen T, Emami S, Gassner GT, Sazinsky MH. Structure and biochemistry of phenylacetaldehyde dehydrogenase from the Pseudomonas putida S12 styrene catabolic pathway. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 616:47-58. [PMID: 28153386 PMCID: PMC5318141 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Phenylacetaldehyde dehydrogenase catalyzes the NAD+-dependent oxidation of phenylactealdehyde to phenylacetic acid in the styrene catabolic and detoxification pathway of Pseudomonas putida (S12). Here we report the structure and mechanistic properties of the N-terminally histidine-tagged enzyme, NPADH. The 2.83 Å X-ray crystal structure is similar in fold to sheep liver cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH1), but has unique set of intersubunit interactions and active site tunnel for substrate entrance. In solution, NPADH occurs as 227 kDa homotetramer. It follows a sequential reaction mechanism in which NAD+ serves as both the leading substrate and homotropic allosteric activator. In the absence of styrene monooxygenase reductase, which regenerates NAD+ from NADH in the first step of styrene catabolism, NPADH is inhibited by a ternary complex involving NADH, product, and phenylacetaldehyde, substrate. Each oligomerization domain of NPADH contains a six-residue insertion that extends this loop over the substrate entrance tunnel of a neighboring subunit, thereby obstructing the active site of the adjacent subunit. This feature could be an important factor in the homotropic activation and product inhibition mechanisms. Compared to ALDH1, the substrate channel of NPADH is narrower and lined with more aromatic residues, suggesting a means for enhancing substrate specificity.
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8
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Müller I. Guidelines for the successful generation of protein-ligand complex crystals. Acta Crystallogr D Struct Biol 2017; 73:79-92. [PMID: 28177304 PMCID: PMC5297911 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798316020271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
With continuous technical improvements at synchrotron facilities, data-collection rates have increased dramatically. This makes it possible to collect diffraction data for hundreds of protein-ligand complexes within a day, provided that a suitable crystal system is at hand. However, developing a suitable crystal system can prove challenging, exceeding the timescale of data collection by several orders of magnitude. Firstly, a useful crystallization construct of the protein of interest needs to be chosen and its expression and purification optimized, before screening for suitable crystallization and soaking conditions can start. This article reviews recent publications analysing large data sets of crystallization trials, with the aim of identifying factors that do or do not make a good crystallization construct, and gives guidance in the design of an expression construct. It provides an overview of common protein-expression systems, addresses how ligand binding can be both help and hindrance for protein purification, and describes ligand co-crystallization and soaking, with an emphasis on troubleshooting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka Müller
- Structural Biology, Discovery from Charles River, Chesterford Research Park, Saffron Walden CB10 1XL, England
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9
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Reversible, partial inactivation of plant betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase by betaine aldehyde: mechanism and possible physiological implications. Biochem J 2016; 473:873-85. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20151084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The activity of plant BADH enzymes may be down-regulated in the short term by a novel and physiologically relevant mechanism, consisting of the reversible formation of a thiohemiacetal between a conserved non-essential cysteine residue and the substrate betaine aldehyde.
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10
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Spaans SK, Weusthuis RA, van der Oost J, Kengen SWM. NADPH-generating systems in bacteria and archaea. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:742. [PMID: 26284036 PMCID: PMC4518329 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) is an essential electron donor in all organisms. It provides the reducing power that drives numerous anabolic reactions, including those responsible for the biosynthesis of all major cell components and many products in biotechnology. The efficient synthesis of many of these products, however, is limited by the rate of NADPH regeneration. Hence, a thorough understanding of the reactions involved in the generation of NADPH is required to increase its turnover through rational strain improvement. Traditionally, the main engineering targets for increasing NADPH availability have included the dehydrogenase reactions of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and the isocitrate dehydrogenase step of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. However, the importance of alternative NADPH-generating reactions has recently become evident. In the current review, the major canonical and non-canonical reactions involved in the production and regeneration of NADPH in prokaryotes are described, and their key enzymes are discussed. In addition, an overview of how different enzymes have been applied to increase NADPH availability and thereby enhance productivity is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ruud A. Weusthuis
- Bioprocess Engineering, Wageningen UniversityWageningen, Netherlands
| | - John van der Oost
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen UniversityWageningen, Netherlands
| | - Servé W. M. Kengen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen UniversityWageningen, Netherlands
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Muñoz-Clares RA, González-Segura L, Riveros-Rosas H, Julián-Sánchez A. Amino acid residues that affect the basicity of the catalytic glutamate of the hydrolytic aldehyde dehydrogenases. Chem Biol Interact 2015; 234:45-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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González-Segura L, Riveros-Rosas H, Julián-Sánchez A, Muñoz-Clares RA. Residues that influence coenzyme preference in the aldehyde dehydrogenases. Chem Biol Interact 2015; 234:59-74. [PMID: 25601141 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2014.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To find out the residues that influence the coenzyme preference of aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs), we reviewed, analyzed and correlated data from their known crystal structures and amino-acid sequences with their published kinetic parameters for NAD(P)(+). We found that the conformation of the Rossmann-fold loops participating in binding the adenosine ribose is very conserved among ALDHs, so that coenzyme specificity is mainly determined by the nature of the residue at position 195 (human ALDH2 numbering). Enzymes with glutamate or proline at 195 prefer NAD(+) because the side-chains of these residues electrostatically and/or sterically repel the 2'-phosphate group of NADP(+). But contrary to the conformational rigidity of proline, the conformational flexibility of glutamate may allow NADP(+)-binding in some enzymes by moving the carboxyl group away from the 2'-phosphate group, which is possible if a small neutral residue is located at position 224, and favored if the residue at position 53 interacts with Glu195 in a NADP(+)-compatible conformation. Of the residues found at position 195, only glutamate interacts with the NAD(+)-adenosine ribose; glutamine and histidine cannot since their side-chain points are opposite to the ribose, probably because the absence of the electrostatic attraction by the conserved nearby Lys192, or its electrostatic repulsion, respectively. The shorter side-chains of other residues-aspartate, serine, threonine, alanine, valine, leucine, or isoleucine-are distant from the ribose but leave room for binding the 2'-phosphate group. Generally, enzymes having a residue different from Glu bind NAD(+) with less affinity, but they can also bind NADP(+) even sometimes with higher affinity than NAD(+), as do enzymes containing Thr/Ser/Gln195. Coenzyme preference is a variable feature within many ALDH families, consistent with being mainly dependent on a single residue that apparently has no other structural or functional roles, and therefore can easily be changed through evolution and selected in response to physiological needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian González-Segura
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D. F. 04510, Mexico
| | - Héctor Riveros-Rosas
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D. F. 04510, Mexico
| | - Adriana Julián-Sánchez
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D. F. 04510, Mexico
| | - Rosario A Muñoz-Clares
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D. F. 04510, Mexico.
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Resolution of carbon metabolism and sulfur-oxidation pathways of Metallosphaera cuprina Ar-4 via comparative proteomics. J Proteomics 2014; 109:276-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Carbohydrate metabolism in Archaea: current insights into unusual enzymes and pathways and their regulation. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2014; 78:89-175. [PMID: 24600042 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00041-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabolism of Archaea, the third domain of life, resembles in its complexity those of Bacteria and lower Eukarya. However, this metabolic complexity in Archaea is accompanied by the absence of many "classical" pathways, particularly in central carbohydrate metabolism. Instead, Archaea are characterized by the presence of unique, modified variants of classical pathways such as the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway and the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway. The pentose phosphate pathway is only partly present (if at all), and pentose degradation also significantly differs from that known for bacterial model organisms. These modifications are accompanied by the invention of "new," unusual enzymes which cause fundamental consequences for the underlying regulatory principles, and classical allosteric regulation sites well established in Bacteria and Eukarya are lost. The aim of this review is to present the current understanding of central carbohydrate metabolic pathways and their regulation in Archaea. In order to give an overview of their complexity, pathway modifications are discussed with respect to unusual archaeal biocatalysts, their structural and mechanistic characteristics, and their regulatory properties in comparison to their classic counterparts from Bacteria and Eukarya. Furthermore, an overview focusing on hexose metabolic, i.e., glycolytic as well as gluconeogenic, pathways identified in archaeal model organisms is given. Their energy gain is discussed, and new insights into different levels of regulation that have been observed so far, including the transcript and protein levels (e.g., gene regulation, known transcription regulators, and posttranslational modification via reversible protein phosphorylation), are presented.
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15
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Ito F, Miyake M, Fushinobu S, Nakamura S, Shimizu K, Wakagi T. Engineering the allosteric properties of archaeal non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2014; 1844:759-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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MacEachran DP, Sinskey AJ. The Rhodococcus opacus TadD protein mediates triacylglycerol metabolism by regulating intracellular NAD(P)H pools. Microb Cell Fact 2013; 12:104. [PMID: 24209886 PMCID: PMC3827869 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-12-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Gram-positive actinomycete Rhodococcus opacus is widely studied for its innate ability to store large amounts of carbon in the form of triacylglycerol (TAG). Several groups have demonstrated that R. opacus PD630 is capable of storing anywhere from 50 to 76% of its cell dry weight as TAG. While numerous studies have focused on phenomenological aspects of this process, few have sought to identify the underlying molecular and biochemical mechanisms responsible for the biosynthesis and storage of this molecule. RESULTS Herein we further our previous efforts to illuminate the black box that is lipid metabolism in actinomycetes using a genetic approach. Utilizing a simple, colorimetric genetic screen, we have identified a gene, referred to herein as tadD (triacylglycerol accumulation deficient), which is critical for TAG biosynthesis in R. opacus PD630. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the purified protein product of this gene is capable of oxidizing glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, while simultaneously reducing NAD(P)+ to NAD(P)H. Supporting this biochemical data, we observed that the ratio of NAD(P)H to NAD(P)+ is elevated in wildtype cultures grown under lipid production conditions as compared to cultures grown under vegetative growth conditions, while the mutant strain demonstrated no change irrespective of growth conditions. Finally, we demonstrate that over-expressing a putative phosphorylative glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase leads to decreased TAG production during growth on TAG accumulation conditions. CONCLUSION Taken together, the data support the identification of a key metabolic branch point separating vegetative growth and lipid accumulation lifestyles in Rhodococcus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony J Sinskey
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 31 Ames Street Bldg, 68-370, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
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17
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Kouril T, Esser D, Kort J, Westerhoff HV, Siebers B, Snoep JL. Intermediate instability at high temperature leads to low pathway efficiency for an in vitro reconstituted system of gluconeogenesis in Sulfolobus solfataricus. FEBS J 2013; 280:4666-80. [PMID: 23865479 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Four enzymes of the gluconeogenic pathway in Sulfolobus solfataricus were purified and kinetically characterized. The enzymes were reconstituted in vitro to quantify the contribution of temperature instability of the pathway intermediates to carbon loss from the system. The reconstituted system, consisting of phosphoglycerate kinase, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, triose phosphate isomerase and the fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase/phosphatase, maintained a constant consumption rate of 3-phosphoglycerate and production of fructose 6-phosphate over a 1-h period. Cofactors ATP and NADPH were regenerated via pyruvate kinase and glucose dehydrogenase. A mathematical model was constructed on the basis of the kinetics of the purified enzymes and the measured half-life times of the pathway intermediates. The model quantitatively predicted the system fluxes and metabolite concentrations. Relative enzyme concentrations were chosen such that half the carbon in the system was lost due to degradation of the thermolabile intermediates dihydroxyacetone phosphate, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, indicating that intermediate instability at high temperature can significantly affect pathway efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Kouril
- Molecular Enzyme Technology and Biochemistry, Biofilm Centre, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
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18
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Archaeal aldehyde dehydrogenase ST0064 from Sulfolobus tokodaii, a paralog of non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, is a succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2013; 77:1344-8. [PMID: 23748791 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.130119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenase ST0064, the closest paralog of previously characterized allosteric non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) dehydrogenase (GAPN, ST2477) from a thermoacidophilic archaeon, Sulfolobus tokodaii, was expressed heterologously and characterized in detail. ST0064 showed remarkable activity toward succinate semialdehyde (SSA) (Km of 0.0029 mM and kcat of 30.0 s(-1)) with no allosteric regulation. Activity toward GAP was lower (Km of 4.6 mM and kcat of 4.77 s(-1)), and previously predicted succinyl-CoA reductase activity was not detected, suggesting that the enzyme functions practically as succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that archaeal SSADHs and GAPNs are closely related within the aldehyde dehydrogenase superfamily, suggesting that they are of the same origin.
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19
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Riveros-Rosas H, González-Segura L, Julián-Sánchez A, Díaz-Sánchez AG, Muñoz-Clares RA. Structural determinants of substrate specificity in aldehyde dehydrogenases. Chem Biol Interact 2012; 202:51-61. [PMID: 23219887 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2012.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 11/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Within the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) superfamily, proteins belonging to the ALDH9, ALDH10, ALDH25, ALDH26 and ALDH27 families display activity as ω-aminoaldehyde dehydrogenases (AMADHs). These enzymes participate in polyamine, choline and arginine catabolism, as well as in synthesis of several osmoprotectants and carnitine. Active site aromatic and acidic residues are involved in binding the ω-aminoaldehydes in plant ALDH10 enzymes. In order to ascertain the degree of conservation of these residues among AMADHs and to evaluate their possible relevance in determining the aminoaldehyde specificity, we compared the known amino acid sequences of every ALDH family that have at least one member with known crystal structure, as well as the electrostatic potential surface of the aldehyde binding sites of these structures. Our analyses showed that four or three aromatic residues form a similar "aromatic box" in the active site of the AMADH enzymes, being the equivalents to Phe170 and Trp177 (human ALDH2 numbering) strictly conserved in all of them, which supports their relevance in binding the aminoaldehyde by cation-π interactions. In addition, all AMADHs exhibit a negative electrostatic potential surface in the aldehyde-entrance tunnel, due to side-chain carboxyl and hydroxyl groups or main-chain carbonyl groups. In contrast, ALDHs that have non-polar or negatively charged substrates exhibit neutral or positive electrostatic potential surfaces, respectively. Finally, our comparative sequence analyses revealed that the residues equivalent to Asp121 and Phe170 are highly conserved in many ALDH families irrespective of their substrate specificity-suggesting that they perform a role in catalysis additional or different to binding of the substrate-and that the positions Met124, Cys301, and Cys303 are hot spots changed during evolution to confer aldehyde specificity to several ALDH families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor Riveros-Rosas
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510 México, DF, Mexico
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20
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Panjkovich A, Daura X. Exploiting protein flexibility to predict the location of allosteric sites. BMC Bioinformatics 2012; 13:273. [PMID: 23095452 PMCID: PMC3562710 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-13-273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allostery is one of the most powerful and common ways of regulation of protein activity. However, for most allosteric proteins identified to date the mechanistic details of allosteric modulation are not yet well understood. Uncovering common mechanistic patterns underlying allostery would allow not only a better academic understanding of the phenomena, but it would also streamline the design of novel therapeutic solutions. This relatively unexplored therapeutic potential and the putative advantages of allosteric drugs over classical active-site inhibitors fuel the attention allosteric-drug research is receiving at present. A first step to harness the regulatory potential and versatility of allosteric sites, in the context of drug-discovery and design, would be to detect or predict their presence and location. In this article, we describe a simple computational approach, based on the effect allosteric ligands exert on protein flexibility upon binding, to predict the existence and position of allosteric sites on a given protein structure. RESULTS By querying the literature and a recently available database of allosteric sites, we gathered 213 allosteric proteins with structural information that we further filtered into a non-redundant set of 91 proteins. We performed normal-mode analysis and observed significant changes in protein flexibility upon allosteric-ligand binding in 70% of the cases. These results agree with the current view that allosteric mechanisms are in many cases governed by changes in protein dynamics caused by ligand binding. Furthermore, we implemented an approach that achieves 65% positive predictive value in identifying allosteric sites within the set of predicted cavities of a protein (stricter parameters set, 0.22 sensitivity), by combining the current analysis on dynamics with previous results on structural conservation of allosteric sites. We also analyzed four biological examples in detail, revealing that this simple coarse-grained methodology is able to capture the effects triggered by allosteric ligands already described in the literature. CONCLUSIONS We introduce a simple computational approach to predict the presence and position of allosteric sites in a protein based on the analysis of changes in protein normal modes upon the binding of a coarse-grained ligand at predicted cavities. Its performance has been demonstrated using a newly curated non-redundant set of 91 proteins with reported allosteric properties. The software developed in this work is available upon request from the authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Panjkovich
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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21
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Lang BS, Gorren ACF, Oberdorfer G, Wenzl MV, Furdui CM, Poole LB, Mayer B, Gruber K. Vascular bioactivation of nitroglycerin by aldehyde dehydrogenase-2: reaction intermediates revealed by crystallography and mass spectrometry. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:38124-34. [PMID: 22988236 PMCID: PMC3488082 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.371716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 (ALDH2) catalyzes the bioactivation of nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate, GTN) in blood vessels, resulting in vasodilation by nitric oxide (NO) or a related species. Because the mechanism of this reaction is still unclear we determined the three-dimensional structures of wild-type (WT) ALDH2 and of a triple mutant of the protein that exhibits low denitration activity (E268Q/C301S/C303S) in complex with GTN. The structure of the triple mutant showed that GTN binds to the active site via polar contacts to the oxyanion hole and to residues 268 and 301 as well as by van der Waals interactions to hydrophobic residues of the catalytic pocket. The structure of the GTN-soaked wild-type protein revealed a thionitrate adduct to Cys-302 as the first reaction intermediate, which was also found by mass spectrometry (MS) experiments. In addition, the MS data identified sulfinic acid as the irreversibly inactivated enzyme species. Assuming that the structures of the triple mutant and wild-type ALDH2 reflect binding of GTN to the catalytic site and the first reaction step, respectively, superposition of the two structures indicates that denitration of GTN is initiated by nucleophilic attack of Cys-302 at one of the terminal nitrate groups, resulting in formation of the observed thionitrate intermediate and release of 1,2-glyceryl dinitrate. Our results shed light on the molecular mechanism of the GTN denitration reaction and provide useful information on the structural requirements for high affinity binding of organic nitrates to the catalytic site of ALDH2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara S Lang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
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22
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Comparative analysis of two glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases from a thermoacidophilic archaeon, Sulfolobus tokodaii. FEBS Lett 2012; 586:3097-103. [PMID: 22841742 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2012.07.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sulfolobus tokodaii, a thermoacidophilic archaeon, possesses two structurally and functionally different enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP): non-phosphorylating GAP dehydrogenase (St-GAPN) and phosphorylating GAP dehydrogenase (St-GAPDH). In contrast to previously characterized GAPN from Sulfolobus solfataricus, which exhibits V-type allosterism, St-GAPN showed K-type allosterism in which the positive cooperativity was abolished with concomitant activation by glucose 1-phosphate (G1P). St-GAPDH catalyzed the reversible oxidation of GAP to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) with high gluconeogenic activity, which was specific for NADPH, while both NAD(+) and NADP(+) were utilized in the glycolytic direction.
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23
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Srivastava D, Singh RK, Moxley MA, Henzl MT, Becker DF, Tanner JJ. The three-dimensional structural basis of type II hyperprolinemia. J Mol Biol 2012; 420:176-89. [PMID: 22516612 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2012.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Revised: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Type II hyperprolinemia is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a deficiency in Δ(1)-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH; also known as ALDH4A1), the aldehyde dehydrogenase that catalyzes the oxidation of glutamate semialdehyde to glutamate. Here, we report the first structure of human P5CDH (HsP5CDH) and investigate the impact of the hyperprolinemia-associated mutation of Ser352 to Leu on the structure and catalytic properties of the enzyme. The 2. 5-Å-resolution crystal structure of HsP5CDH was determined using experimental phasing. Structures of the mutant enzymes S352A (2.4 Å) and S352L (2.85 Å) were determined to elucidate the structural consequences of altering Ser352. Structures of the 93% identical mouse P5CDH complexed with sulfate ion (1.3 Å resolution), glutamate (1.5 Å), and NAD(+) (1.5 Å) were determined to obtain high-resolution views of the active site. Together, the structures show that Ser352 occupies a hydrophilic pocket and is connected via water-mediated hydrogen bonds to catalytic Cys348. Mutation of Ser352 to Leu is shown to abolish catalytic activity and eliminate NAD(+) binding. Analysis of the S352A mutant shows that these functional defects are caused by the introduction of the nonpolar Leu352 side chain rather than the removal of the Ser352 hydroxyl. The S352L structure shows that the mutation induces a dramatic 8-Å rearrangement of the catalytic loop. Because of this conformational change, Ser349 is not positioned to interact with the aldehyde substrate, conserved Glu447 is no longer poised to bind NAD(+), and Cys348 faces the wrong direction for nucleophilic attack. These structural alterations render the enzyme inactive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhiraj Srivastava
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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24
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Lee YC, Lin DT, Ong PL, Chen HL, Lo HF, Lin LL. Contribution of conserved Glu255 and Cys289 residues to catalytic activity of recombinant aldehyde dehydrogenase from Bacillus licheniformis. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2011; 76:1233-1241. [PMID: 22117550 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297911110058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Based on the sequence homology, we have modeled the three-dimensional structure of Bacillus licheniformis aldehyde dehydrogenase (BlALDH) and identified two different residues, Glu255 and Cys289, that might be responsible for the catalytic function of the enzyme. The role of these residues was further investigated by site-directed mutagenesis and biophysical analysis. The expressed parental and mutant proteins were purified by nickel-chelate chromatography, and their molecular masses were determined to be approximately 53 kDa by SDS-PAGE. As compared with the parental BlALDH, a dramatic decrease or even complete loss of the dehydrogenase activity was observed for the mutant enzymes. Structural analysis showed that the intrinsic fluorescence and circular dichroism spectra of the mutant proteins were similar to the parental enzyme, but most of the variants exhibited a different sensitivity towards thermal- and guanidine hydrochloride-induced denaturation. These observations indicate that residues Glu255 and Cys289 play an important role in the dehydrogenase activity of BlALDH, and the rigidity of the enzyme has been changed as a consequence of the mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Chung Lee
- Department of Bioagricultural Science, National Chiayi University, Chiayi City, Taiwan
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25
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Matsubara K, Yokooji Y, Atomi H, Imanaka T. Biochemical and genetic characterization of the three metabolic routes in Thermococcus kodakarensis linking glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and 3-phosphoglycerate. Mol Microbiol 2011; 81:1300-12. [PMID: 21736643 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07762.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In the classical Embden-Meyerhof (EM) pathway for glycolysis, the conversion between glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) and 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) is reversibly catalysed by phosphorylating GAP dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK). In the Euryarchaeota Thermococcus kodakarensis and Pyrococcus furiosus, an additional gene encoding GAP:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (GAPOR) and a gene similar to non-phosphorylating GAP dehydrogenase (GAPN) are present. In order to determine the physiological roles of the three routes that link GAP and 3-PGA, we individually disrupted the GAPOR, GAPN, GAPDH and PGK genes (gor, gapN, gapDH and pgk respectively) of T. kodakarensis. The Δgor strain displayed no growth under glycolytic conditions, confirming its proposed function to generate reduced ferredoxin for energy generation in glycolysis. Surprisingly, ΔgapN cells also did not grow under glycolytic conditions, suggesting that GAPN plays a key role in providing NADPH under these conditions. Disruption of gor and gapN had no effect on gluconeogenic growth. Growth experiments with the ΔgapDH and Δpgk strains indicated that, unlike their counterparts in the classical EM pathway, GAPDH/PGK play a major role only in gluconeogenesis. Biochemical analyses indicated that T. kodakarensis GAPN did not recognize aldehyde substrates other than d-GAP, preferred NADP(+) as cofactor and was dramatically activated with glucose 1-phosphate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohei Matsubara
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
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26
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Biochemical characterization of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1. Extremophiles 2011; 15:337-46. [PMID: 21409597 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-011-0365-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) plays an essential role in glycolysis by catalyzing the conversion of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (D-G3P) to 1,3-diphosphoglycerate using NAD(+) as a cofactor. In this report, the GAPDH gene from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1 (GAPDH-tk) was cloned and the protein was purified to homogeneity. GAPDH-tk exists as a homotetramer with a native molecular mass of 145 kDa; the subunit molecular mass was 37 kDa. GAPDH-tk is a thermostable protein with a half-life of 5 h at 80-90°C. The apparent K (m) values for NAD(+) and D-G3P were 77.8 ± 7.5 μM and 49.3 ± 3.0 μM, respectively, with V (max) values of 45.1 ± 0.8 U/mg and 59.6 ± 1.3 U/mg, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and image processing confirmed that GAPDH-tk has a tetrameric structure. Interestingly, GAPDH-tk migrates as high molecular mass forms (~232 kDa and ~669 kDa) in response to oxidative stress.
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27
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Muñoz-Clares RA, González-Segura L, Díaz-Sánchez AG. Crystallographic evidence for active-site dynamics in the hydrolytic aldehyde dehydrogenases. Implications for the deacylation step of the catalyzed reaction. Chem Biol Interact 2010; 191:137-46. [PMID: 21195066 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2010.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 12/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The overall chemical mechanism of the reaction catalyzed by the hydrolytic aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) involves three main steps: (1) nucleophilic attack of the thiol group of the catalytic cysteine on the carbonyl carbon of the aldehyde substrate; (2) hydride transfer from the tetrahedral thiohemiacetal intermediate to the pyridine ring of NAD(P)(+); and (3) hydrolysis of the resulting thioester intermediate (deacylation). Crystal structures of different ALDHs from several organisms-determined in the absence and presence of bound NAD(P)(+), NAD(P)H, aldehydes, or acid products-showed specific details at the atomic level about the catalytic residues involved in each of the catalytic steps. These structures also showed the conformational flexibility of the nicotinamide half of the cofactor, and of the catalytic cysteinyl and glutamyl residues, the latter being the general base that activates the hydrolytic water molecule in the deacylation step. The architecture of the ALDH active site allows for this conformational flexibility, which, undoubtedly, is crucial for catalysis in these enzymes. Focusing in the deacylation step of the ALDH-catalyzed reaction, here we review and systematize the crystallographic evidence of the structural features responsible for the conformational flexibility of the catalytic glutamyl residue, and for the positioning of the hydrolytic water molecule inside the ALDH active site. Based on the analysis of the available crystallographic data and of energy-minimized models of the thioester reaction intermediate, as well as on the results of theoretical calculations of the pK(a) of the carboxyl group of the catalytic glutamic acid in its three different conformations, we discuss the role that the conformational flexibility of this residue plays in the activation of the hydrolytic water. We also propose a critical participation in the water activation process of the peptide bond to which the catalytic glutamic acid in the intermediate conformation is hydrogen bonded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario A Muñoz-Clares
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México DF, Mexico.
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28
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Regulation of autotrophic CO2 fixation in the archaeon Thermoproteus neutrophilus. J Bacteriol 2010; 192:5329-40. [PMID: 20693323 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00729-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Thermoproteus neutrophilus, a hyperthermophilic, chemolithoautotrophic, anaerobic crenarchaeon, uses a novel autotrophic CO(2) fixation pathway, the dicarboxylate/hydroxybutyrate cycle. The regulation of the central carbon metabolism was studied on the level of whole cells, enzyme activity, the proteome, transcription, and gene organization. The organism proved to be a facultative autotroph, which prefers organic acids as carbon sources that can easily feed into the metabolite pools of this cycle. Addition of the preferred carbon sources acetate, pyruvate, succinate, and 4-hydroxybutyrate to cultures resulted in stimulation of the growth rate and a diauxic growth response. The characteristic enzyme activities of the carbon fixation cycle, fumarate hydratase, fumarate reductase, succinyl coenzyme A (CoA) synthetase, and enzymes catalyzing the conversion of succinyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA, were differentially downregulated in the presence of acetate and, to a lesser extent, in the presence of other organic substrates. This regulation pattern correlated well with the differential expression profile of the proteome as well as with the transcription of the encoding genes. The genes encoding phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase, fumarate reductase, and four enzymes catalyzing the conversion of succinyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA are clustered. Two putative operons, one comprising succinyl-CoA reductase plus 4-hydroxybutyrate-CoA ligase genes and the other comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase plus fumarate reductase genes, were divergently transcribed into leaderless mRNAs. The promoter regions were characterized and used for isolating DNA binding proteins. Besides an Alba protein, a 18-kDa protein characteristic for autotrophic Thermoproteales that bound specifically to the promoter region was identified. This system may be suitable for molecular analysis of the transcriptional regulation of autotrophy-related genes.
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Langendorf CG, Key TLG, Fenalti G, Kan WT, Buckle AM, Caradoc-Davies T, Tuck KL, Law RHP, Whisstock JC. The X-ray crystal structure of Escherichia coli succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; structural insights into NADP+/enzyme interactions. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9280. [PMID: 20174634 PMCID: PMC2823781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 01/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In mammals succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) plays an essential role in the metabolism of the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to succinic acid (SA). Deficiency of SSADH in humans results in elevated levels of GABA and γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), which leads to psychomotor retardation, muscular hypotonia, non-progressive ataxia and seizures. In Escherichia coli, two genetically distinct forms of SSADHs had been described that are essential for preventing accumulation of toxic levels of succinic semialdehyde (SSA) in cells. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we structurally characterise SSADH encoded by the E coli gabD gene by X-ray crystallographic studies and compare these data with the structure of human SSADH. In the E. coli SSADH structure, electron density for the complete NADP+ cofactor in the binding sites is clearly evident; these data in particular revealing how the nicotinamide ring of the cofactor is positioned in each active site. Conclusions/Significance Our structural data suggest that a deletion of three amino acids in E. coli SSADH permits this enzyme to use NADP+, whereas in contrast the human enzyme utilises NAD+. Furthermore, the structure of E. coli SSADH gives additional insight into human mutations that result in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher G. Langendorf
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trevor L. G. Key
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gustavo Fenalti
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Wan-Ting Kan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashley M. Buckle
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Kellie L. Tuck
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ruby H. P. Law
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (RHPL); (JCW)
| | - James C. Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (RHPL); (JCW)
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30
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Implications of fast-time scale dynamics of human DNA/RNA cytosine methyltransferases (DNMTs) for protein function. Theor Chem Acc 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-009-0681-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Muñoz-Clares RA, Díaz-Sánchez AG, González-Segura L, Montiel C. Kinetic and structural features of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenases: mechanistic and regulatory implications. Arch Biochem Biophys 2009; 493:71-81. [PMID: 19766587 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2009] [Revised: 09/05/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The betaine aldehyde dehydrogenases (BADH; EC 1.2.1.8) are so-called because they catalyze the irreversible NAD(P)(+)-dependent oxidation of betaine aldehyde to glycine betaine, which may function as (i) a very efficient osmoprotectant accumulated by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms to cope with osmotic stress, (ii) a metabolic intermediate in the catabolism of choline in some bacteria such as the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or (iii) a methyl donor for methionine synthesis. BADH enzymes can also use as substrates aminoaldehydes and other quaternary ammonium and tertiary sulfonium compounds, thereby participating in polyamine catabolism and in the synthesis of gamma-aminobutyrate, carnitine, and 3-dimethylsulfoniopropionate. This review deals with what is known about the kinetics and structural properties of these enzymes, stressing those properties that have only been found in them and not in other aldehyde dehydrogenases, and discussing their mechanistic and regulatory implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario A Muñoz-Clares
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México DF 04510, México.
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Talfournier F, Pailot A, Stinès-Chaumeil C, Branlant G. Stabilization and conformational isomerization of the cofactor during the catalysis in hydrolytic ALDHs. Chem Biol Interact 2008; 178:79-83. [PMID: 19028478 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2008.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2008] [Revised: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Over the past 15 years, mechanistic and structural aspects were studied extensively for hydrolytic ALDHs. One the most striking feature of nearly all X-ray structures of binary ALDH-NAD(P)(+) complexes is the great conformational flexibility of the NMN moiety of the NAD(P)(+), in particular of the nicotinamide ring. However, the fact that the acylation step is efficient in GAPN (non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) from Streptococcus mutans and in other hydrolytic ALDHs implies an optimal positioning of the nicotinamide ring relative to the hemithioacetal intermediate within the ternary complex to allow an efficient and stereospecific hydride transfer. Another key aspect of the chemical mechanism of this ALDH family is the requirement for the reduced NMN (NMNH) to move away from the initial position of the NMN for adequate positioning and activation of the deacylating water molecule by invariant E268 for completion of the reaction. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to characterize structural and molecular factors involved in the stabilization of the NMN moiety of the cofactor during the acylation step and to provide structural evidence of conformational isomerization of the cofactor during the catalytic cycle of hydrolytic ALDHs. The results presented here will be discussed for their relevance to the two-step catalytic mechanism and from an evolutionary viewpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Talfournier
- Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, UMR 7567 CNRS - Nancy Université, Maturation des ARN et Enzymologie Moléculaire, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France.
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The central carbohydrate metabolism of the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeote Thermoproteus tenax: pathways and insights into their regulation. Arch Microbiol 2008; 190:231-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00203-008-0375-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Bains J, Boulanger MJ. Structural and biochemical characterization of a novel aldehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the benzoate oxidation pathway in Burkholderia xenovorans LB400. J Mol Biol 2008; 379:597-608. [PMID: 18462753 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2008] [Revised: 04/08/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The recently identified benzoate oxidation (box) pathway in Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 (LB400 hereinafter) assimilates benzoate through a unique mechanism where each intermediate is processed as a coenzyme A (CoA) thioester. A key step in this process is the conversion of 3,4-dehydroadipyl-CoA semialdehyde into its corresponding CoA acid by a novel aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) (EC 1.2.1.x). The goal of this study is to characterize the biochemical and structural properties of the chromosomally encoded form of this new class of ALDHs from LB400 (ALDH(C)) in order to better understand its role in benzoate degradation. To this end, we carried out kinetic studies with six structurally diverse aldehydes and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(+) and NADP(+)). Our data definitively show that ALDH(C) is more active in the presence of NADP(+) and selective for linear medium-chain to long-chain aldehydes. To elucidate the structural basis for these biochemical observations, we solved the 1.6-A crystal structure of ALDH(C) in complex with NADPH bound in the cofactor-binding pocket and an ordered fragment of a polyethylene glycol molecule bound in the substrate tunnel. These data show that cofactor selectivity is governed by a complex network of hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atoms of the 2'-phosphoryl moiety of NADP(+) and a threonine/lysine pair on ALDH(C). The catalytic preference of ALDH(C) for linear longer-chain substrates is mediated by a deep narrow configuration of the substrate tunnel. Comparative analysis reveals that reorientation of an extended loop (Asn478-Pro490) in ALDH(C) induces the constricted structure of the substrate tunnel, with the side chain of Asn478 imposing steric restrictions on branched-chain and aromatic aldehydes. Furthermore, a key glycine (Gly104) positioned at the mouth of the tunnel allows for maximum tunnel depth required to bind medium-chain to long-chain aldehydes. This study provides the first integrated biochemical and structural characterization of a box-pathway-encoded ALDH from any organism and offers insight into the catalytic role of ALDH(C) in benzoate degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasleen Bains
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3055 STN CSC, Victoria, BC, Canada
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35
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DNA microarray analysis of central carbohydrate metabolism: glycolytic/gluconeogenic carbon switch in the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeum Thermoproteus tenax. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:2231-8. [PMID: 18178743 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01524-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to unravel the role of regulation on transcript level in central carbohydrate metabolism (CCM) of Thermoproteus tenax, a focused DNA microarray was constructed by using 85 open reading frames involved in CCM. A transcriptional analysis comparing heterotrophic growth on glucose versus autotrophic growth on CO2-H2 was performed.
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Kanai T, Akerboom J, Takedomi S, van de Werken HJG, Blombach F, van der Oost J, Murakami T, Atomi H, Imanaka T. A global transcriptional regulator in Thermococcus kodakaraensis controls the expression levels of both glycolytic and gluconeogenic enzyme-encoding genes. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:33659-33670. [PMID: 17875647 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m703424200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We identified a novel regulator, Thermococcales glycolytic regulator (Tgr), functioning as both an activator and a repressor of transcription in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1. Tgr (TK1769) displays similarity (28% identical) to Pyrococcus furiosus TrmB (PF1743), a transcriptional repressor regulating the trehalose/maltose ATP-binding cassette transporter genes, but is more closely related (67%) to a TrmB paralog in P. furiosus (PF0124). Growth of a tgr disruption strain (Deltatgr) displayed a significant decrease in growth rate under gluconeogenic conditions compared with the wild-type strain, whereas comparable growth rates were observed under glycolytic conditions. A whole genome microarray analysis revealed that transcript levels of almost all genes related to glycolysis and maltodextrin metabolism were at relatively high levels in the Deltatgr mutant even under gluconeogenic conditions. The Deltatgr mutant also displayed defects in the transcriptional activation of gluconeogenic genes under these conditions, indicating that Tgr functions as both an activator and a repressor. Genes regulated by Tgr contain a previously identified sequence motif, the Thermococcales glycolytic motif (TGM). The TGM was positioned upstream of the Transcription factor B-responsive element (BRE)/TATA sequence in gluconeogenic promoters and downstream of it in glycolytic promoters. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay indicated that recombinant Tgr protein specifically binds to promoter regions containing a TGM. Tgr was released from the DNA when maltotriose was added, suggesting that this sugar is most likely the physiological effector. Our results strongly suggest that Tgr is a global transcriptional regulator that simultaneously controls, in response to sugar availability, both glycolytic and gluconeogenic metabolism in T. kodakaraensis via its direct binding to the TGM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamotsu Kanai
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Jasper Akerboom
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Shogo Takedomi
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Harmen J G van de Werken
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Fabian Blombach
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - John van der Oost
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Taira Murakami
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Haruyuki Atomi
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Tadayuki Imanaka
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan.
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Fourrat L, Iddar A, Valverde F, Serrano A, Soukri A. Cloning, gene expression and characterization of a novel bacterial NAD-dependent non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from Neisseria meningitidis strain Z2491. Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 305:209-19. [PMID: 17619949 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-007-9545-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Alignment of the amino acid sequence of some archaeal, bacterial and eukaryotic non-phosphorylating glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenases (GAPNs) and aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) with the sequence of a putative GAPN present in the genome of the Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis strain Z2491 demonstrated the conservation of residues involved in the catalytic activity. The predicted coding sequence of the N. meningitidis gapN gene was cloned in Escherichia coli XL1-blue under the expression of an inducible promoter. The IPTG-induced GAPN was purified ca. 48-fold from E. coli cells using a procedure that sequentially employed conventional ammonium sulfate fractionation as well as anion-exchange and affinity chromatography. The purified recombinant enzyme was thoroughly characterized. The protein is a homotetramer with a 50-kDa subunit, exhibiting absolute specificity for NAD and a broad spectrum of aldehyde substrates. Isoelectric focusing analysis with the purified fraction showed the presence of an acidic polypeptide with an isoelectric point of 6.3. The optimum pH of the purified enzyme was between 9 and 10. Studies on the effect of increasing temperatures on the enzyme activity revealed an optimal value ca. 64 degrees C. Molecular phylogenetic data suggest that N. meningitidis GAPN has a closer relationship with archaeal GAPNs and glyceraldehyde dehydrogenases than with the typical NADP-specific GAPNs from Gram-positive bacteria and photosynthetic eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latifa Fourrat
- Laboratoire de Physiologie et Génétique moléculaire, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences Aïn-Chock, Université Hassan-II, Casablanca, Morocco
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38
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Ettema TJG, Ahmed H, Geerling ACM, van der Oost J, Siebers B. The non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPN) of Sulfolobus solfataricus: a key-enzyme of the semi-phosphorylative branch of the Entner-Doudoroff pathway. Extremophiles 2007; 12:75-88. [PMID: 17549431 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-007-0082-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2006] [Accepted: 03/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Archaea utilize a branched modification of the classical Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway for sugar degradation. The semi-phosphorylative branch merges at the level of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) with the lower common shunt of the Emden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway. In Sulfolobus solfataricus two different GAP converting enzymes-classical phosphorylating GAP dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and the non-phosphorylating GAPDH (GAPN)-were identified. In Sulfolobales the GAPN encoding gene is found adjacent to the ED gene cluster suggesting a function in the regulation of the semi-phosphorylative ED branch. The biochemical characterization of the recombinant GAPN of S. solfataricus revealed that-like the well-characterized GAPN from Thermoproteus tenax-the enzyme of S. solfataricus exhibits allosteric properties. However, both enzymes show some unexpected differences in co-substrate specificity as well as regulatory fine-tuning, which seem to reflect an adaptation to the different lifestyles of both organisms. Phylogenetic analyses and database searches in Archaea indicated a preferred distribution of GAPN (and/or GAP oxidoreductase) in hyperthermophilic Archaea supporting the previously suggested role of GAPN in metabolic thermoadaptation. This work suggests an important role of GAPN in the regulation of carbon degradation via modifications of the EMP and the branched ED pathway in hyperthermophilic Archaea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs J G Ettema
- Department of Molecular Evolution, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18C, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
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39
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Di Costanzo L, Gomez GA, Christianson DW. Crystal structure of lactaldehyde dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli and inferences regarding substrate and cofactor specificity. J Mol Biol 2006; 366:481-93. [PMID: 17173928 PMCID: PMC1866264 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Revised: 11/03/2006] [Accepted: 11/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde dehydrogenases catalyze the oxidation of aldehyde substrates to the corresponding carboxylic acids. Lactaldehyde dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli (aldA gene product, P25553) is an NAD(+)-dependent enzyme implicated in the metabolism of l-fucose and l-rhamnose. During the heterologous expression and purification of taxadiene synthase from the Pacific yew, lactaldehyde dehydrogenase from E. coli was identified as a minor (</=5%) side-product subsequent to its unexpected crystallization. Accordingly, we now report the serendipitous crystal structure determination of unliganded lactaldehyde dehydrogenase from E. coli determined by the technique of multiple isomorphous replacement using anomalous scattering at 2.2 A resolution. Additionally, we report the crystal structure of the ternary enzyme complex with products lactate and NADH at 2.1 A resolution, and the crystal structure of the enzyme complex with NADPH at 2.7 A resolution. The structure of the ternary complex reveals that the nicotinamide ring of the cofactor is disordered between two conformations: one with the ring positioned in the active site in the so-called hydrolysis conformation, and another with the ring extended out of the active site into the solvent region, designated the out conformation. This represents the first crystal structure of an aldehyde dehydrogenase-product complex. The active site pocket in which lactate binds is more constricted than that of medium-chain dehydrogenases such as the YdcW gene product of E. coli. The structure of the binary complex with NADPH reveals the first view of the structural basis of specificity for NADH: the negatively charged carboxylate group of E179 destabilizes the binding of the 2'-phosphate group of NADPH sterically and electrostatically, thereby accounting for the lack of enzyme activity with this cofactor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Di Costanzo
- Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6323, USA
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40
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D'Ambrosio K, Pailot A, Talfournier F, Didierjean C, Benedetti E, Aubry A, Branlant G, Corbier C. The first crystal structure of a thioacylenzyme intermediate in the ALDH family: new coenzyme conformation and relevance to catalysis. Biochemistry 2006; 45:2978-86. [PMID: 16503652 DOI: 10.1021/bi0515117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Crystal structures of several members of the nonphosphorylating CoA-independent aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) family have shown that the peculiar binding mode of the cofactor to the Rossmann fold results in a conformational flexibility for the nicotinamide moiety of the cofactor. This has been hypothesized to constitute an essential feature of the catalytic mechanism because the conformation of the cofactor required for the acylation step is not appropriate for the deacylation step. In the present study, the structure of a reaction intermediate of the E268A-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPN) from Streptococcus mutans, obtained by soaking the crystals of the enzyme/NADP complex with the natural substrate, is reported. The substrate is bound covalently in the four monomers and presents the geometric characteristics expected for a thioacylenzyme intermediate. Control experiments assessed that reduction of the coenzyme has occurred within the crystal. The structure reveals that reduction of the cofactor upon acylation leads to an extensive motion of the nicotinamide moiety with a flip of the reduced pyridinium ring away from the active site without significant changes of the protein structure. This event positions the reduced nicotinamide moiety in a pocket that likely constitutes the exit door for NADPH. Arguments are provided that the structure reported here constitutes a reasonable picture of the first thioacylenzyme intermediate characterized thus far in the ALDH family and that the position of the reduced nicotinamide moiety observed in GAPN is the one suitable for the deacylation step within all of the nonphosphorylating CoA-independent ALDH family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia D'Ambrosio
- LCM3B, Groupe Biocristallographie, UMR 7036, CNRS-UHP, Faculté des Sciences, 54506 Vandoeuvre Cedex, France
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41
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Grochowski LL, Xu H, White RH. Identification of lactaldehyde dehydrogenase in Methanocaldococcus jannaschii and its involvement in production of lactate for F420 biosynthesis. J Bacteriol 2006; 188:2836-44. [PMID: 16585745 PMCID: PMC1447007 DOI: 10.1128/jb.188.8.2836-2844.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2006] [Accepted: 02/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the early steps in the biosynthesis of coenzyme F(420) in Methanocaldococcus jannaschii requires generation of 2-phospho-L-lactate, which is formed by the phosphorylation of L-lactate. Preliminary studies had shown that L-lactate in M. jannaschii is not derived from pyruvate, and thus an alternate pathway(s) for its formation was examined. Here we report that L-lactate is formed by the NAD(+)-dependent oxidation of l-lactaldehyde by the MJ1411 gene product. The lactaldehyde, in turn, was found to be generated either by the NAD(P)H reduction of methylglyoxal or by the aldol cleavage of fuculose-1-phosphate by fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase, the MJ1418 gene product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Grochowski
- Department of Biochemistry (0308), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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42
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Tjaden B, Plagens A, Dörr C, Siebers B, Hensel R. Phosphoenolpyruvate synthetase and pyruvate, phosphate dikinase of Thermoproteus tenax: key pieces in the puzzle of archaeal carbohydrate metabolism. Mol Microbiol 2006; 60:287-98. [PMID: 16573681 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05098.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The interconversion of phosphoenolpyruvate and pyruvate represents an important control point of the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway in Bacteria and Eucarya, but little is known about this site of regulation in Archaea. Here we report on the coexistence of phosphoenolpyruvate synthetase (PEPS) and the first described archaeal pyruvate, phosphate dikinase (PPDK), which, besides pyruvate kinase (PK), are involved in the catalysis of this reaction in the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeote Thermoproteus tenax. The genes encoding T. tenax PEPS and PPDK were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the enzymic and regulatory properties of the recombinant gene products were analysed. Whereas PEPS catalyses the unidirectional conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate, PPDK shows a bidirectional activity with a preference for the catabolic reaction. In contrast to PK of T. tenax, which is regulated on transcript level but exhibits only limited regulatory potential on protein level, PEPS and PPDK activities are modulated by adenosine phosphates and intermediates of the carbohydrate metabolism. Additionally, expression of PEPS is regulated on transcript level in response to the offered carbon source as revealed by Northern blot analyses. The combined action of the differently regulated enzymes PEPS, PPDK and PK represents a novel way of controlling the interconversion of phosphoenolpyruvate and pyruvate in the reversible EMP pathway, allowing short-term and long-term adaptation to different trophic conditions. Comparative genomic analyses indicate the coexistence of PEPS, PPDK and PK in other Archaea as well, suggesting a similar regulation of the carbohydrate metabolism in these organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Tjaden
- Department of Microbiology, Universität Duisburg-Essen, 45117 Essen, Germany.
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43
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Ahmed H, Ettema T, Tjaden B, Geerling A, van der Oost J, Siebers B. The semi-phosphorylative Entner-Doudoroff pathway in hyperthermophilic archaea: a re-evaluation. Biochem J 2006; 390:529-40. [PMID: 15869466 PMCID: PMC1198933 DOI: 10.1042/bj20041711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biochemical studies have suggested that, in hyperthermophilic archaea, the metabolic conversion of glucose via the ED (Entner-Doudoroff) pathway generally proceeds via a non-phosphorylative variant. A key enzyme of the non-phosphorylating ED pathway of Sulfolobus solfataricus, KDG (2-keto-3-deoxygluconate) aldolase, has been cloned and characterized previously. In the present study, a comparative genomics analysis is described that reveals conserved ED gene clusters in both Thermoproteus tenax and S. solfataricus. The corresponding ED proteins from both archaea have been expressed in Escherichia coli and their specificity has been identified, revealing: (i) a novel type of gluconate dehydratase (gad gene), (ii) a bifunctional 2-keto-3-deoxy-(6-phospho)-gluconate aldolase (kdgA gene), (iii) a 2-keto-3-deoxygluconate kinase (kdgK gene) and, in S. solfataricus, (iv) a GAPN (non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; gapN gene). Extensive in vivo and in vitro enzymatic analyses indicate the operation of both the semi-phosphorylative and the non-phosphorylative ED pathway in T. tenax and S. solfataricus. The existence of this branched ED pathway is yet another example of the versatility and flexibility of the central carbohydrate metabolic pathways in the archaeal domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hatim Ahmed
- *Department of Microbiology, University Duisburg-Essen, Campus Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Thijs J. G. Ettema
- †Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, 6703 CT Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Britta Tjaden
- *Department of Microbiology, University Duisburg-Essen, Campus Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany
| | - Ans C. M. Geerling
- †Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, 6703 CT Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - John van der Oost
- †Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, 6703 CT Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bettina Siebers
- *Department of Microbiology, University Duisburg-Essen, Campus Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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Siebers B, Schönheit P. Unusual pathways and enzymes of central carbohydrate metabolism in Archaea. Curr Opin Microbiol 2005; 8:695-705. [PMID: 16256419 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2005.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2005] [Accepted: 10/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sugar-utilizing hyperthermophilic and halophilic Archaea degrade glucose and glucose polymers to acetate or to CO2 using O2, nitrate, sulfur or sulfate as electron acceptors. Comparative analyses of glycolytic pathways in these organisms indicate a variety of differences from the classical Emden-Meyerhof and Entner-Doudoroff pathways that are operative in Bacteria and Eukarya, respectively. The archaeal pathways are characterized by the presence of numerous novel enzymes and enzyme families that catalyze, for example, the phosphorylation of glucose and of fructose 6-phosphate, the isomerization of glucose 6-phosphate, the cleavage of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, the oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and the conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetate. Recent major advances in deciphering the complexity of archaeal central carbohydrate metabolism were gained by combination of classical biochemical and genomic-based approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Siebers
- Universität Duisburg-Essen, Campus Essen, FB Biologie und Geografie, Mikrobiologie, Universitätsstr.5, D-45117 Essen, Germany
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