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Ardini M, Aboagye SY, Petukhova VZ, Kastrati I, Ippoliti R, Thatcher GRJ, Petukhov PA, Williams DL, Angelucci F. The "Doorstop Pocket" In Thioredoxin Reductases─An Unexpected Druggable Regulator of the Catalytic Machinery. J Med Chem 2024; 67:15947-15967. [PMID: 39250602 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
Pyridine nucleotide-disulfide oxidoreductases are underexplored as drug targets, and thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs) stand out as compelling pharmacological targets. Selective TrxR inhibition is challenging primarily due to the reliance on covalent inhibition strategies. Recent studies identified a regulatory and druggable pocket in Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR), a TrxR-like enzyme, and an established drug target for schistosomiasis. This site is termed the "doorstop pocket" because compounds that bind there impede the movement of an aromatic side-chain necessary for the entry and exit of NADPH and NADP+ during enzymatic turnover. This discovery spearheaded the development of new TGR inhibitors with efficacies surpassing those of current schistosomiasis treatment. Targeting the "doorstop pocket" is a promising strategy, as the pocket is present in all members of the pyridine nucleotide-disulfide oxidoreductase family, opening new avenues for exploring therapeutic approaches in diseases where the importance of these enzymes is established, including cancer and inflammatory and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Ardini
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Sammy Y Aboagye
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Valentina Z Petukhova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Irida Kastrati
- Department of Cancer Biology, Loyola University Chicago, 60153 Maywood, Illinois 60153, United States
| | - Rodolfo Ippoliti
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Gregory R J Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
| | - Pavel A Petukhov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - David L Williams
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Francesco Angelucci
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
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Alt TB, Smith MM, Moran GR. Probing the Site of Glutathione Reduction by Thioredoxin/Glutathione Reductase from Schistosoma mansoni under Anaerobic Conditions. Arch Biochem Biophys 2024; 761:110162. [PMID: 39322101 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2024.110162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2024] [Revised: 09/18/2024] [Accepted: 09/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Thioredoxin/glutathione reductase from Schistosoma mansoni (SmTGR) is a multifunctional enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of glutathione (GSSG) and thioredoxin, as well as the deglutathionylation of peptide and non-peptide substrates. SmTGR structurally resembles known glutathione reductases (GR) and thioredoxin reductases (TrxR) but with an appended N-terminal domain that has a typical glutaredoxin (Grx) fold. Despite structural homology with known GRs, the site of glutathione reduction has frequently been reported as the Grx domain, based primarily on aerobic, steady-state kinetic measurements and x-ray crystallography. Here, we present an anaerobic characterization of a series of variant SmTGRs to establish the site of GSSG reduction as the cysteine pair most proximal to the FAD, Cys154/Cys159, equivalent to the site of GSSG reduction in GRs. Anaerobic steady-state analysis of U597C, U597S, U597C+C31S, and I592STOP SmTGR demonstrate that the Grx domain is not involved in the catalytic reduction of GSSG, as redox silencing of the C-terminus results in no modulation of the observed turnover number (∼0.025 s-1) and redox silencing of the Grx domain results in an increased observed turnover number (∼0.08 s-1). Transient-state single turnover analysis of these variants corroborates this, as the slowest rate observed titrates hyperbolically with GSSG concentration and approaches a limit that coincides with the respective steady-state turnover number for each variant. Numerical integration fitting of the transient state data can only account for the observed trends when competitive binding of the C-terminus is included, indicating that the partitioning of electrons to either substrate occurs at the Cys154/Cys159 disulfide rather than the previously proposed Cys596/Sec597 sulfide/selenide. Paradoxically, truncating the C-terminus at Ile592 results in a loss of GR activity, indicating a crucial non-redox role for the C-terminus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler B Alt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1068 W Sheridan Rd, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL 60660, USA
| | - Madison M Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1068 W Sheridan Rd, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL 60660, USA
| | - Graham R Moran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1068 W Sheridan Rd, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL 60660, USA.
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Smith MM, Moran GR. Building on a theme: The redox hierarchy of pyridine nucleotide-disulfide oxidoreductases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2024; 755:109966. [PMID: 38537870 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2024.109966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/24/2024]
Abstract
Flavin disulfide reductases (FDRs) are FAD-dependent enzymes that transmit electrons from NAD(P)H to reduce specific oxidant substrate disulfides. These enzymes have been studied extensively, most particularly the paradigm examples: glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase. The common, though not universal, traits of the family include a tyrosine- or phenylalanine-gated binding pocket for NAD(P) nicotinamides adjacent to the FAD isoalloxazine re-face, and a disulfide stacked against the si-face of the isoalloxazine whose dithiol form is activated for subsequent exchange reactions by a nearby histidine acting as a base. This arrangement promotes transduction of the reducing equivalents for disulfide exchange relay reactions. From an observational standpoint the proximal parallel stacking of three redox moieties induces up to three opportunities for unique charge transfer interactions (NAD(P)H FAD, NAD(P)+•FADH2, and FAD•thiolate). In transient state, the charge transfer transitions provide discrete signals to assign reaction sequences. This review summarizes the lineage of observations for the FDR enzymes that have been extensively studied. Where applicable and in order to chart a consistent interpretation of the record, only data derived from studies that used anaerobic methods are cited. These data reveal a recurring theme for catalysis that is elaborated with specific additional functionalities for each oxidant substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison M Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1068 W Sheridan Rd, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60660, United States
| | - Graham R Moran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1068 W Sheridan Rd, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60660, United States.
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Munte CE, Kalbitzer HR. Solution structure and pressure response of thioredoxin-1 of Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301579. [PMID: 38635664 PMCID: PMC11025842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
We present here the solution structures of the protein thioredoxin-1 from Plasmodium falciparum (PfTrx-1), in its reduced and oxidized forms. They were determined by high-resolution NMR spectroscopy at 293 K on uniformly 13C-, 15N-enriched, matched samples allowing to identification of even small structural differences. PfTrx-1 shows an α/β-fold with a mixed five-stranded β-sheet that is sandwiched between 4 helices in a β1 α1 β2 α2 β3 α3 β4 β5 α4 topology. The redox process of the CGPC motif leads to significant structural changes accompanied by larger chemical shift changes from residue Phe25 to Ile36, Thr70 to Thr74, and Leu88 to Asn91. By high-field high-pressure NMR spectroscopy, rare conformational states can be identified that potentially are functionally important and can be used for targeted drug development. We performed these experiments in the pressure range from 0.1 MPa to 200 MPa. The mean combined, random-coil corrected B1* values of reduced and oxidized thioredoxin are quite similar with -0.145 and -0.114 ppm GPa-1, respectively. The mean combined, random-coil corrected B2* values in the reduced and oxidized form are 0.179 and 0.119 ppm GPa-2, respectively. The mean ratios of the pressure coefficients B2/B1 are -0.484 and -0.831 GPa-1 in the reduced and oxidized form respectively. They differ at some points in the structure after the formation of the disulfide bond between C30 and C33. The thermodynamical description of the pressure dependence of chemical shifts requires the assumption of at least three coexisting conformational states of PfTrx-1. These three conformational states were identified in the reduced as well as in the oxidized form of the protein, therefore, they represent sub-states of the two main oxidation states of PfTrx-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Elisabeth Munte
- Institute of Biophysics and Physical Biochemistry and Centre of Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Hans Robert Kalbitzer
- Institute of Biophysics and Physical Biochemistry and Centre of Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry and Biomedicine, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Smith MM, Moran GR. Assigning function to active site residues of Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin/glutathione reductase from analysis of transient state reductive half-reactions with variant forms of the enzyme. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1258333. [PMID: 37780207 PMCID: PMC10535113 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1258333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Thioredoxin/glutathione reductase (TGR) from the platyhelminthic parasitic worms has recently been identified as a drug target for the treatment of schistosomiasis. Schistosomes lack catalase, and so are heavily reliant on the regeneration of reduced thioredoxin (Trx) and glutathione (GSH) to reduce peroxiredoxins that ameliorate oxidative damage from hydrogen peroxide generated by the host immune response. This study focuses on the characterization of the catalytic mechanism of Schistosoma mansoni TGR (SmTGR). Variant forms of SmTGR were studied to assign the function of residues that participate in the electron distribution chain within the enzyme. Using anaerobic transient state spectrophotometric methods, redox changes for the FAD and NADPH were observed and the function of specific residues was defined from observation of charge transfer absorption transitions that are indicative of specific complexations and redox states. The C159S variant prevented distribution of electrons beyond the flavin and as such did not accumulate thiolate-FAD charge transfer absorption. The lack of this absorption facilitated observation of a new charge transfer absorption consistent with proximity of NADPH and FAD. The C159S variant was used to confine electrons from NADPH at the flavin, and it was shown that NADPH and FAD exchange hydride in both directions and come to an equilibrium that yields only fractional FAD reduction, suggesting that both have similar reduction potentials. Mutation of U597 to serine resulted in sustained thiolate-FAD charge transfer absorption and loss of the ability to reduce Trx, indicating that the C596-U597 disulfide functions in the catalytic sequence to receive electrons from the C154 C159 pair and distribute them to Trx. No kinetic evidence for a loss or change in function associated with the distal C28-C31 disulfide was observed when the C31S variant reductive half-reaction was observed. The Y296A variant was shown to slow the rate of but increase extent of reduction of the flavin, and the dissociation of NADP+. The H571 residue was confirmed to be the residue responsible for the deprotonation of the C159 thiol, increasing its reactivity and generating the prominent thiolate-FAD charge transfer absorption that accumulates with oxidation of the flavin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Graham R. Moran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Vallières C, Golinelli-Cohen MP, Guittet O, Lepoivre M, Huang ME, Vernis L. Redox-Based Strategies against Infections by Eukaryotic Pathogens. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14040778. [PMID: 37107536 PMCID: PMC10138290 DOI: 10.3390/genes14040778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Redox homeostasis is an equilibrium between reducing and oxidizing reactions within cells. It is an essential, dynamic process, which allows proper cellular reactions and regulates biological responses. Unbalanced redox homeostasis is the hallmark of many diseases, including cancer or inflammatory responses, and can eventually lead to cell death. Specifically, disrupting redox balance, essentially by increasing pro-oxidative molecules and favouring hyperoxidation, is a smart strategy to eliminate cells and has been used for cancer treatment, for example. Selectivity between cancer and normal cells thus appears crucial to avoid toxicity as much as possible. Redox-based approaches are also employed in the case of infectious diseases to tackle the pathogens specifically, with limited impacts on host cells. In this review, we focus on recent advances in redox-based strategies to fight eukaryotic pathogens, especially fungi and eukaryotic parasites. We report molecules recently described for causing or being associated with compromising redox homeostasis in pathogens and discuss therapeutic possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Vallières
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Golinelli-Cohen
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Olivier Guittet
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Michel Lepoivre
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Meng-Er Huang
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Laurence Vernis
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS UPR 2301, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Fritz-Wolf K, Bathke J, Rahlfs S, Becker K. Crystal structure of plasmoredoxin, a redox-active protein unique for malaria parasites. Curr Res Struct Biol 2022; 4:87-95. [PMID: 35434650 PMCID: PMC9006252 DOI: 10.1016/j.crstbi.2022.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmoredoxin is a 22 kDa thiol–disulfide oxidoreductase involved in cellular redox regulatory processes and antioxidant defense. The 1.6 Å structure of the protein, solved via X-ray crystallography, adopts a modified thioredoxin fold. The structure reveals that plasmoredoxin, unique for malarial parasites, forms a new subgroup of thioredoxin-like proteins together with tryparedoxin, unique for kinetoplastids. Unlike most members of this superfamily, Plrx does not have a proline residue within the CxxC redox motif. In addition, the Plrx structure has a distinct C-terminal domain. Similar to human thioredoxin, plasmoredoxin forms monomers and dimers, which are also structurally similar to the human thioredoxin dimer, and, as in humans, plasmoredoxin is inactive as a dimer. Monomer–dimer equilibrium depends on the surrounding redox conditions, which could support the parasite in reacting to oxidative challenges. Based on structural considerations, the residues of the dimer interface are likely to interact with target proteins. In contrast to human and Plasmodium falciparum thioredoxin, however, there is a cluster of positively charged residues at the dimer interface of plasmoredoxin. These intersubunit (lysine) residues might allow binding of the protein to cellular membranes or to plasminogen. Malaria parasites lack catalase and glutathione peroxidase and therefore depend on their other glutathione and thioredoxin-dependent redox relays. Plasmoredoxin could be part of a so far unknown electron transfer system that only occurs in these parasites. Since the surface charge of plasmoredoxin differs significantly from other members of the thioredoxin superfamily, its three-dimensional structure can provide a model for designing selective redox-modulatory inhibitors. Two high resolution X-ray structures – confirmed that Plrx belongs to the thioredoxin superfamily. Structure and surface charge differ from the other members of the thioredoxin superfamily. The highest relationship in terms from sequence and structural fold is found with tryparedoxins. Similar to human thioredoxin, plasmoredoxin forms monomers and dimers. Potential as drug target.
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Tiwari S, Sharma N, Sharma GP, Mishra N. Redox interactome in malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:423-434. [PMID: 33459846 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07051-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum is a severe threat to human health across the globe. This parasite alone causes the highest morbidity and mortality than any other species of Plasmodium. The parasites dynamically multiply in the erythrocytes of the vertebrate hosts, a large number of reactive oxygen species that damage biological macromolecules are produced in the cell during parasite growth. To relieve this intense oxidative stress, the parasite employs an NADPH-dependent thioredoxin and glutathione system that acts as an antioxidant and maintains redox status in the parasite. The mutual interaction of both redox proteins is involved in various biological functions and the survival of the erythrocytic stage of the parasite. Since the Plasmodium species is deficient in catalase and classical glutathione peroxidase, so their redox balance relies on a complex set of five peroxiredoxins, differentially positioned in the cytosol, mitochondria, apicoplast, and nucleus with partly overlapping substrate preferences. Moreover, Plasmodium falciparum possesses a set of members belonging to the thioredoxin superfamily, such as three thioredoxins, two thioredoxin-like proteins, one dithiol, three monocysteine glutaredoxins, and one redox-active plasmoredoxin with largely redundant functions. This review paper aims to discuss and encapsulate the biological function and current knowledge of the functional redox network of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savitri Tiwari
- Parasite-Host Biology Group, National Institute of Malaria Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Nivedita Sharma
- Parasite-Host Biology Group, National Institute of Malaria Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | | | - Neelima Mishra
- Parasite-Host Biology Group, National Institute of Malaria Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Sector-8, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110077, India.
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Diallo BN, Swart T, Hoppe HC, Tastan Bishop Ö, Lobb K. Potential repurposing of four FDA approved compounds with antiplasmodial activity identified through proteome scale computational drug discovery and in vitro assay. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1413. [PMID: 33446838 PMCID: PMC7809352 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80722-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria elimination can benefit from time and cost-efficient approaches for antimalarials such as drug repurposing. In this work, 796 DrugBank compounds were screened against 36 Plasmodium falciparum targets using QuickVina-W. Hits were selected after rescoring using GRaph Interaction Matching (GRIM) and ligand efficiency metrics: surface efficiency index (SEI), binding efficiency index (BEI) and lipophilic efficiency (LipE). They were further evaluated in Molecular dynamics (MD). Twenty-five protein-ligand complexes were finally retained from the 28,656 (36 × 796) dockings. Hit GRIM scores (0.58 to 0.78) showed their molecular interaction similarity to co-crystallized ligands. Minimum LipE (3), SEI (23) and BEI (7) were in at least acceptable thresholds for hits. Binding energies ranged from -6 to -11 kcal/mol. Ligands showed stability in MD simulation with good hydrogen bonding and favorable protein-ligand interactions energy (the poorest being -140.12 kcal/mol). In vitro testing showed 4 active compounds with two having IC50 values in the single-digit μM range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bakary N'tji Diallo
- Research Unit in Bioinformatics (RUBi), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
| | - Tarryn Swart
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
| | - Heinrich C Hoppe
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
| | - Özlem Tastan Bishop
- Research Unit in Bioinformatics (RUBi), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa
| | - Kevin Lobb
- Research Unit in Bioinformatics (RUBi), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.
- Department of Chemistry, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.
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Joardar N, Guevara-Flores A, Martínez-González JDJ, Sinha Babu SP. Thiol antioxidant thioredoxin reductase: A prospective biochemical crossroads between anticancer and antiparasitic treatments of the modern era. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:249-267. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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de Souza Pereira C, Costa Quadros H, Magalhaes Moreira DR, Castro W, Santos De Deus Da Silva RI, Botelho Pereira Soares M, Fontinha D, Prudêncio M, Schmitz V, Dos Santos HF, Gendrot M, Fonta I, Mosnier J, Pradines B, Navarro M. A Novel Hybrid of Chloroquine and Primaquine Linked by Gold(I): Multitarget and Multiphase Antiplasmodial Agent. ChemMedChem 2020; 16:662-678. [PMID: 33231370 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites kill 435 000 people around the world every year due to unavailable vaccines, a limited arsenal of antimalarial drugs, delayed treatment, and the reduced clinical effectiveness of current practices caused by drug resistance. Therefore, there is an urgent need to discover and develop new antiplasmodial candidates. In this work, we present a novel strategy to develop a multitarget metallic hybrid antimalarial agent with possible dual efficacy in both sexual and asexual erythrocytic stages. A hybrid of antimalarial drugs (chloroquine and primaquine) linked by gold(I) was synthesized and characterized by spectroscopic and analytical techniques. The CQPQ-gold(I) hybrid molecule affects essential parasite targets, it inhibits β-hematin formation and interacts moderately with the DNA minor groove. Its interaction with PfTrxR was also examined in computational modeling studies. The CQPQ-gold(I) hybrid displayed an excellent in vitro antimalarial activity against the blood-stage of Plasmodium falciparum and liver-stage of Plasmodium berghei and efficacy in vivo against P. berghei, thereby demonstrating its multiple-stage antiplasmodial activity. This metallic hybrid is a promising chemotherapeutic agent that could act in the treatment, prevention, and transmission of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline de Souza Pereira
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, s/n - Campus Universitário, Bairro Martelos, CEP 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Helenita Costa Quadros
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Waldemar Falcão, 121, Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brasil
| | | | - William Castro
- Centro de Química, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Centro de Química, Carretera Panamericana, Km 11, Altos de Pipe, San Antonio de los Altos Miranda, 1020-A, Caracas, Venezuela
| | | | | | - Diana Fontinha
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa <, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Miguel Prudêncio
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa <, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Vinicius Schmitz
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, s/n - Campus Universitário, Bairro Martelos, CEP 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Hélio F Dos Santos
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, s/n - Campus Universitário, Bairro Martelos, CEP 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Mathieu Gendrot
- Unité Parasitologie et entomologie, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, VITROME, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
| | - Isabelle Fonta
- Unité Parasitologie et entomologie, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, VITROME, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Centre National de Référence du Paludisme, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
| | - Joel Mosnier
- Unité Parasitologie et entomologie, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, VITROME, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Centre National de Référence du Paludisme, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
| | - Bruno Pradines
- Unité Parasitologie et entomologie, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, SSA, AP-HM, VITROME, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France.,Centre National de Référence du Paludisme, 19-21 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
| | - Maribel Navarro
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, s/n - Campus Universitário, Bairro Martelos, CEP 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brasil
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12
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Abhishek S, Sivadas S, Satish M, Deeksha W, Rajakumara E. Dynamic Basis for Auranofin Drug Recognition by Thiol-Reductases of Human Pathogens and Intermediate Coordinated Adduct Formation with Catalytic Cysteine Residues. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:9593-9602. [PMID: 31460050 PMCID: PMC6649031 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
In all the living systems, reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism provides resistance against internal and external oxidative stresses. Auranofin (AF), an FDA-approved gold [Au(I)]-conjugated drug, is known to selectively target thiol-reductases, key enzymes involved in ROS metabolism. AF has been successfully tested for its inhibitory activity through biochemical studies, both in vitro and in vivo, against a diverse range of pathogens including protozoa, nematodes, bacteria, and so forth. Cocrystal structures of thiol-reductases complexed with AF revealed that Au(I) was coordinately linked to catalytic cysteines, but the mechanism of transfer of Au(I) from AF to catalytic cysteines still remains unknown. In this study, we have employed computational approaches to understand the interaction of AF with thiol-reductases of selected human pathogens. A similar network of interactions of AF was observed in all the studied enzymes. Also, we have shown that tailor-made analogues of AF can be designed against selective thiol-reductases for targeted inhibition. Molecular dynamics studies show that the AF-intermediates, tetraacetylthioglucose (TAG)-gold, and triethylphosphine (TP)-gold, coordinately linked to one of catalytic cysteines, remain stable in the binding pocket of thiol-reductases for Leishmania infantum and Plasmodium falciparum (PfTrxR). This suggests that the TP and TAG moieties of AF may be sequentially eliminated during the transfer of Au(I) to catalytic cysteines of the receptor.
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13
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Structure, Mechanism, and Inhibition of Aspergillus fumigatus Thioredoxin Reductase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.02281-18. [PMID: 30642940 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02281-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus infections are associated with high mortality rates and high treatment costs. Limited available antifungals and increasing antifungal resistance highlight an urgent need for new antifungals. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) is essential for maintaining redox homeostasis and presents as a promising target for novel antifungals. We show that ebselen [2-phenyl-1,2-benzoselenazol-3(2H)-one] is an inhibitor of A. fumigatus TrxR (Ki = 0.22 μM) and inhibits growth of Aspergillus spp., with in vitro MIC values of 16 to 64 µg/ml. Mass spectrometry analysis demonstrates that ebselen interacts covalently with a catalytic cysteine of TrxR, Cys148. We also present the X-ray crystal structure of A. fumigatus TrxR and use in silico modeling of the enzyme-inhibitor complex to outline key molecular interactions. This provides a scaffold for future design of potent and selective antifungal drugs that target TrxR, improving the potency of ebselen toward inhbition of A. fumigatus growth.
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14
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Zhang J, Zhang B, Li X, Han X, Liu R, Fang J. Small molecule inhibitors of mammalian thioredoxin reductase as potential anticancer agents: An update. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:5-39. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junmin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
- School of Pharmacy; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
| | - Baoxin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
| | - Xinming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
| | - Xiao Han
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
| | - Ruijuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
- School of Pharmacy; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
| | - Jianguo Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Lanzhou University; Lanzhou China
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15
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O'Keefe JP, Dustin CM, Barber D, Snider GW, Hondal RJ. A "Seleno Effect" Differentiates the Roles of Redox Active Cysteine Residues in Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin Reductase. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1767-1778. [PMID: 29485860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Here, we introduce the concept of the "seleno effect" in the study of oxidoreductases that catalyze thiol/disulfide exchange reactions. In these reactions, selenium can replace sulfur as a nucleophile, electrophile, or leaving group, and the resulting change in rate (the seleno effect) is defined as kS/ kSe. In solution, selenium accelerates the rate of thiol/disulfide exchange regardless of its chemical role (e.g., nucleophile or electrophile). Here we show that this is not the case for enzyme catalyzed reactions and that the magnitude of the seleno effect can differentiate the role of each sulfur atom of a disulfide bond between that of an electrophile or leaving group. We used selenium for sulfur substitution to study the thiol/disulfide exchange step that occurs between the N-terminal redox center and the C-terminal disulfide-containing β-hairpin motif of Plasmodium falciparum thioredoxin reductase (PfTrxR), which has the sequence Gly-Cys535-Gly-Gly-Gly-Lys-Cys540-Gly. We assayed a truncated PfTrxR enzyme missing this C-terminal tail for disulfide-reductase activity using synthetic peptide substrates in which either Cys535 or Cys540 was replaced with selenocysteine (Sec). The results show that substitution of Cys535 with Sec resulted in a nearly 9-fold decrease in the rate of reduction, while substitution of Cys540 resulted in a 1.5-fold increase in the rate of reduction. We also produced full-length, semisynthetic enzymes in which Sec replaced either of these two Cys residues and observed similar results using E. coli thioredoxin as the substrate. In this assay, the observed seleno effect ( kS/ kSe) for the C535U mutant was 7.4, and that for the C540U mutant was 0.2.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P O'Keefe
- Department of Biochemistry , University of Vermont , 89 Beaumont Ave, Given Building Room B413 , Burlington , Vermont 05405 , United States
| | - Christopher M Dustin
- Department of Biochemistry , University of Vermont , 89 Beaumont Ave, Given Building Room B413 , Burlington , Vermont 05405 , United States
| | - Drew Barber
- Department of Biochemistry , University of Vermont , 89 Beaumont Ave, Given Building Room B413 , Burlington , Vermont 05405 , United States
| | - Gregg W Snider
- Department of Biochemistry , University of Vermont , 89 Beaumont Ave, Given Building Room B413 , Burlington , Vermont 05405 , United States
| | - Robert J Hondal
- Department of Biochemistry , University of Vermont , 89 Beaumont Ave, Given Building Room B413 , Burlington , Vermont 05405 , United States
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16
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The Architecture of Thiol Antioxidant Systems among Invertebrate Parasites. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22020259. [PMID: 28208651 PMCID: PMC6155587 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of oxygen as the final electron acceptor in aerobic organisms results in an improvement in the energy metabolism. However, as a byproduct of the aerobic metabolism, reactive oxygen species are produced, leaving to the potential risk of an oxidative stress. To contend with such harmful compounds, living organisms have evolved antioxidant strategies. In this sense, the thiol-dependent antioxidant defense systems play a central role. In all cases, cysteine constitutes the major building block on which such systems are constructed, being present in redox substrates such as glutathione, thioredoxin, and trypanothione, as well as at the catalytic site of a variety of reductases and peroxidases. In some cases, the related selenocysteine was incorporated at selected proteins. In invertebrate parasites, antioxidant systems have evolved in a diversity of both substrates and enzymes, representing a potential area in the design of anti-parasite strategies. The present review focus on the organization of the thiol-based antioxidant systems in invertebrate parasites. Differences between these taxa and its final mammal host is stressed. An understanding of the antioxidant defense mechanisms in this kind of parasites, as well as their interactions with the specific host is crucial in the design of drugs targeting these organisms.
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17
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Zhang B, Zhang J, Peng S, Liu R, Li X, Hou Y, Han X, Fang J. Thioredoxin reductase inhibitors: a patent review. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2016; 27:547-556. [DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2017.1272576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Baoxin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Junmin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shoujiao Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ruijuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xinming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yanan Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiao Han
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jianguo Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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18
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Bathke J, Fritz-Wolf K, Brandstädter C, Burkhardt A, Jortzik E, Rahlfs S, Becker K. Structural and Functional Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum Nicotinic Acid Mononucleotide Adenylyltransferase. J Mol Biol 2016; 428:4946-4961. [PMID: 27984041 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2016.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Nicotinic acid mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NaMNAT) is an indispensable enzyme for the synthesis of NAD and NAD phosphate. It catalyzes the adenylylation of nicotinic acid mononucleotide (NaMN) to yield nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (NaAD). Since NAD(H) and NAD phosphate(H) are essentially involved in metabolic and redox regulatory reactions, NaMNAT is an attractive drug target in the fight against bacterial and parasitic infections. Notably, NaMNAT of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum possesses only 20% sequence identity with the homologous human enzyme. Here, we present for the first time the two X-ray structures of P. falciparum NaMNAT (PfNaMNAT)-in the product-bound state with NaAD and complexed with an α,β-non-hydrolizable ATP analog-the structures were determined to a resolution of 2.2Å and 2.5Å, respectively. The overall architecture of PfNaMNAT was found to be more similar to its bacterial homologs than its human counterparts although the PPHK motif conserved in bacteria is missing. Furthermore, PfNaMNAT possesses two cysteine residues within the active site that have not been described for any other NaMNATase so far and are likely to be involved in redox regulation of PfNaMNAT activity. Enzymatic studies and surface plasmon resonance data reveal that PfNaMNAT is capable of utilizing NaMN and nicotinamide mononucleotide with a slight preference for NaMN. Surprisingly, a comparison with the active site of Escherichia coli NaMNAT showed very similar architectures, despite different substrate preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Bathke
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Karin Fritz-Wolf
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany; Max-Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstrasse 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christina Brandstädter
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Anja Burkhardt
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Esther Jortzik
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Stefan Rahlfs
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Katja Becker
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.
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19
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Ogungbe IV, Setzer WN. The Potential of Secondary Metabolites from Plants as Drugs or Leads against Protozoan Neglected Diseases-Part III: In-Silico Molecular Docking Investigations. Molecules 2016; 21:E1389. [PMID: 27775577 PMCID: PMC6274513 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21101389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and human African trypanosomiasis continue to cause considerable suffering and death in developing countries. Current treatment options for these parasitic protozoal diseases generally have severe side effects, may be ineffective or unavailable, and resistance is emerging. There is a constant need to discover new chemotherapeutic agents for these parasitic infections, and natural products continue to serve as a potential source. This review presents molecular docking studies of potential phytochemicals that target key protein targets in Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma spp., and Plasmodium spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ifedayo Victor Ogungbe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39217, USA.
| | - William N Setzer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA.
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20
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Identification of a thioredoxin reductase from Babesia microti during mammalian infection. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:3219-27. [PMID: 27164832 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Babesia microti is the primary causative agent of human babesiosis worldwide and associated with increased human health risks and the safety of blood supply. The parasite replicates in the host's red blood cells, thus, in order to counteract the oxidative stress and toxic effects, parasites employ a thioredoxin (Trx) system to maintain a redox balance. Since thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) plays a critical role in the system, in this study, we report the cloning, expression, and functional characterization of a novel TrxR from B. microti (BmiTrxR). The complete gene BmiTrxR was obtained by amplifying the 5' and 3' regions of messenger RNA (mRNA) by RACE. The full-length complementary DNA (cDNA) of BmiTrxR was 1766 bp and contained an intact open reading frame with 1662 bp that encoded a polypeptide with 553 amino acids. Molecular weight of the predicted protein was 58.4 kDa with an isoelectric point of 6.95, similar to high molecular weight TrxR. The recombinant protein of BmiTrxR was expressed in a His-fused soluble form in Escherichia coli. The native protein BmiTrxR was identified with the mouse anti-BmiTrxR polyclonal serum by western blotting and IFAT. Moreover, the enzyme showed a disulfide reductase activity using DTNB as substrate and catalyzed the NADPH-dependent reduction of Trx. Auranofin, a known inhibitor of TrxR, completely abrogated the activity of the recombinant enzyme in vitro. These results not only contribute to the understanding of redox pathway in this parasite but also suggest that BmiTrxR could be a potential target for the development of novel strategies to control B. microti thus reducing the incidence of babesiosis.
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21
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McCarty SE, Schellenberger A, Goodwin DC, Fuanta NR, Tekwani BL, Calderón AI. Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin Reductase (PfTrxR) and Its Role as a Target for New Antimalarial Discovery. Molecules 2015; 20:11459-73. [PMID: 26111176 PMCID: PMC6272602 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200611459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing resistance to current antimalarial drugs is a major concern for global public health. The pressing need for new antimalarials has led to an increase in research focused on the Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), an enzyme needed to maintain redox equilibrium in Plasmodium species, is a promising target for new antimalarials. This review paper provides an overview of the structure and function of TrxR, discusses similarities and differences between the thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs) of different Plasmodium species and the human forms of the enzyme, gives an overview of modeling Plasmodium infections in animals, and suggests the role of Trx functions in antimalarial drug resistance. TrxR of Plasmodium falciparum is a central focus of this paper since it is the only Plasmodium TrxR that has been crystallized and P. falciparum is the species that causes most malaria cases. It is anticipated that the information summarized here will give insight and stimulate new directions in which research might be most beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E McCarty
- College of Sciences and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Amanda Schellenberger
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Douglas C Goodwin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Ngolui Rene Fuanta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS 38677, USA.
| | - Angela I Calderón
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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22
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Winkler M, Maynadier M, Wein S, Lespinasse MA, Boumis G, Miele AE, Vial H, Wong YS. Uncovering new structural insights for antimalarial activity from cost-effective aculeatin-like derivatives. Org Biomol Chem 2015; 13:2064-77. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ob02459a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
An expedient synthesis of aculeatin-like analogues results in finding PfTrxR as putative cellular target and a promising new antimalarial chemotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Winkler
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
| | - Marjorie Maynadier
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Sharon Wein
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Marie-Ange Lespinasse
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
| | - Giovanna Boumis
- Department of Biochemical Sciences
- “Sapienza” University of Rome
- 00185 Rome
- Italy
| | - Adriana E. Miele
- Department of Biochemical Sciences
- “Sapienza” University of Rome
- 00185 Rome
- Italy
| | - Henri Vial
- Laboratory Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques
- UMR5235
- CNRS
- University Montpellier 2
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - Yung-Sing Wong
- Département de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes
- CNRS UMR 5063
- CNRS ICMG FR 2607
- F-38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
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23
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Martínez-González JJ, Guevara-Flores A, Rendón JL, Sosa-Peinado A, Del Arenal Mena IP. Purification and characterization of Taenia crassiceps cysticerci thioredoxin: insight into thioredoxin-glutathione-reductase (TGR) substrate recognition. Parasitol Int 2014; 64:194-201. [PMID: 25523293 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Thioredoxin (Trx) is an oxidoreductase central to redox homeostasis in cells and is involved in the regulation of protein activity through thiol/disulfide exchanges. Based on these facts, our goal was to purify and characterize cytosolic thioredoxin from Taenia crassiceps cysticerci, as well as to study its behavior as a substrate of thioredoxin-glutathione reductase (TGR). The enzyme was purified >133-fold with a total yield of 9.7%. A molecular mass of 11.7kDa and a pI of 4.84 were measured. Native electrophoresis was used to identify the oxidized and reduced forms of the monomer as well as the presence of a homodimer. In addition to the catalytic site cysteines, cysticerci thioredoxin contains Cys28 and Cys65 residues conserved in previously sequenced cestode thioredoxins. The following kinetic parameters were obtained for the substrate of TGR: a Km of 3.1μM, a kcat of 10s(-1) and a catalytic efficiency of 3.2×10(6)M(-1)s(-1). The negative patch around the α3-helix of Trx is involved in the interaction with TGR and suggests variable specificity and catalytic efficiency of the reductase toward thioredoxins of different origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Martínez-González
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-159, 04510 México, D.F., México
| | - A Guevara-Flores
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-159, 04510 México, D.F., México
| | - J L Rendón
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-159, 04510 México, D.F., México
| | - A Sosa-Peinado
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-159, 04510 México, D.F., México
| | - I P Del Arenal Mena
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apartado Postal 70-159, 04510 México, D.F., México
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24
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Snider GW, Dustin CM, Ruggles EL, Hondal RJ. A mechanistic investigation of the C-terminal redox motif of thioredoxin reductase from Plasmodium falciparum. Biochemistry 2014; 53:601-9. [PMID: 24400600 PMCID: PMC3957191 DOI: 10.1021/bi400931k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
High-molecular
mass thioredoxin reductases (TRs) are pyridine nucleotide
disulfide oxidoreductases that catalyze the reduction of the disulfide
bond of thioredoxin (Trx). Trx is responsible for reducing multiple
protein disulfide targets in the cell. TRs utilize reduced β-nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate to reduce a bound flavin prosthetic
group, which in turn reduces an N-terminal redox center that has the
conserved sequence CICVNVGCCT, where CIC is denoted as the interchange thiol while the thiol involved in
charge-transfer complexation is denoted as CCT. The reduced
N-terminal redox center reduces a C-terminal redox center on the opposite
subunit of the head-to-tail homodimer, the C-terminal redox center
that catalyzes the reduction of the Trx-disulfide. Variations in the
amino acid sequence of the C-terminal redox center differentiate high-molecular
mass TRs into different types. Type Ia TRs have tetrapeptide C-terminal
redox centers of with a GCUG sequence, where U is the rare amino acid
selenocysteine (Sec), while the tetrapeptide sequence in type Ib TRs
has its Sec residue replaced with a conventional cysteine (Cys) residue
and can use small polar amino acids such as serine and threonine in
place of the flanking glycine residues. The TR from Plasmodium
falciparum (PfTR) is similar in structure and mechanism to
type Ia and type Ib TRs except that the C-terminal redox center is
different in its amino acid sequence. The C-terminal redox center
of PfTR has the sequence G534CGGGKCG541, and
we classify it as a type II high-molecular mass TR. The oxidized type
II redox motif will form a 20-membered disulfide ring, whereas the
absence of spacer amino acids in the type I motif results in the formation
of a rare eight-membered ring. We used site-directed mutagenesis and
protein semisynthesis to investigate features of the distinctive type
II C-terminal redox motif that help it perform catalysis. Deletion
of Gly541 reduces thioredoxin reductase activity by ∼50-fold,
most likely because of disruption of an important hydrogen bond between
the amide NH group of Gly541 and the carbonyl of Gly534 that helps
to stabilize
the β–turn−β motif. Alterations of the 20-membered
disulfide ring either by amino acid deletion or by substitution resulted
in impaired catalytic activity. Subtle changes in the ring structure
and size caused by using semisynthesis to substitute homocysteine
for cysteine also caused significant reductions in catalytic activity,
demonstrating the importance of the disulfide ring’s geometry
in making the C-terminal redox center reactive for thiol–disulfide
exchange. The data suggested to us that the transfer of electrons
from the N-terminal redox center to the C-terminal redox center may
be rate-limiting. We propose that the transfer of electrons from the
N-terminal redox center in PfTR to the type II C-terminal disulfide
is accelerated by the use of an “electrophilic activation”
mechanism. In this mechanism, the type II C-terminal disulfide is
polarized, making the sulfur atom of Cys540 electron deficient, highly
electrophilic, and activated for thiol–disulfide exchange with
the N-terminal redox center. This hypothesis was investigated by constructing
chimeric PfTR mutant enzymes containing C-terminal type I sequences
GCCG and GCUG, respectively. The PfTR-GCCG chimera had 500-fold less
thioredoxin reductase activity than the native enzyme but still reduced
selenocystine and lipoic acid efficiently. The PfTR-GCUG chimera had
higher catalytic activity than the native enzyme with Trx, selenocystine,
and lipoic acid as substrates. The results suggested to us that (i)
Sec in the mutant enzyme accelerated the rate of thiol–disulfide
exchange between the N- and C-terminal redox centers, (ii) the type
II redox center evolved for efficient catalysis utilizing Cys instead
of Sec, and (iii) the type II redox center of PfTR is partly responsible
for substrate recognition of the cognate PfTrx substrate relative
to noncognate thioredoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregg W Snider
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont, College of Medicine , 89 Beaumont Avenue, Given Building Room B413, Burlington, Vermont 05405, United States
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Kirkensgaard KG, Hägglund P, Shahpiri A, Finnie C, Henriksen A, Svensson B. A novel twist on molecular interactions between thioredoxin and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-dependent thioredoxin reductase. Proteins 2013; 82:607-19. [PMID: 24123219 DOI: 10.1002/prot.24437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitous disulfide reductase thioredoxin (Trx) regulates several important biological processes such as seed germination in plants. Oxidized cytosolic Trx is regenerated by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent thioredoxin reductase (NTR) in a multistep transfer of reducing equivalents from NADPH to Trx via a tightly NTR-bound flavin. Here, interactions between NTR and Trx are predicted by molecular modelling of the barley NTR:Trx complex (HvNTR2:HvTrxh2) and probed by site directed mutagenesis. Enzyme kinetics analysis reveals mutants in a loop of the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-binding domain of HvNTR2 to strongly affect the interaction with Trx. In particular, Trp42 and Met43 play key roles for recognition of the endogenous HvTrxh2. Trx from Arabidopsis thaliana is also efficiently recycled by HvNTR2 but turnover in this case appears to be less dependent on these two residues, suggesting a distinct mode for NTR:Trx recognition. Comparison between the HvNTR2:HvTrxh2 model and the crystal structure of the Escherichia coli NTR:Trx complex reveals major differences in interactions involving the FAD- and NADPH-binding domains as supported by our experiments. Overall, the findings suggest that NTR:Trx interactions in different biological systems are fine-tuned by multiple intermolecular contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine G Kirkensgaard
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; The Protein Chemistry Group, Carlsberg Laboratory, DK-1799 København V, Denmark
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