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Sens A, Thomas D, Schäfer SMG, König A, Pinter A, Tegeder I, Geisslinger G, Gurke R. Endocannabinoid analysis in GlucoEXACT plasma: Method validation and sample handling recommendations. Talanta 2024; 278:126518. [PMID: 39018759 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (ECs), such as anandamide and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG), contribute to the pathology of inflammatory, malignant, cardiovascular, metabolic and mental diseases. The reliability of quantitative analyses in biological fluids of ECs and endocannabinoid-like (EC-like) substances depends on pre-analytical conditions such as temperature and "time-to-centrifugation". Standardization of these parameters is critical for valid quantification and implementation in clinical research. In this study, we compared concentrations obtained with GlucoEXACT blood collection tubes versus K3EDTA tubes and employed the optimized procedure to assess ECs profiles in patients with inflammatory skin disease and healthy controls. A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for human plasma from GlucoEXACT blood collection tubes according to EMA and FDA guidelines, and pre-analytical conditions were systematically modified to assess analyte stability and optimize the procedures. The results showed significantly lower concentrations of ECs and EC-like substance concentrations with GlucoEXACT tubes compared with K3EDTA tubes, and GlucoEXACT extended the time window of stable concentrations. The strongest method-disagreement occurred for 1/2-AG suggesting that GlucoEXACT delayed ex vivo isomer rearrangement. Hence, GlucoExact tubes were superior in terms of stability and reliability. However, although absolute concentrations obtained with GlucoExact and K3EDTA differed, linear regression studies showed high agreement (except for 1/2-AG), and both methods showed similar EC profiles and similar disease-dependent pro-inflammatory patterns in dermatology patients. Hence, despite the obstacles in EC analyses, implementation of optimized pre-analytical blood collection and sample processing procedures provide reliable insight into peripheral ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sens
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - D Thomas
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - S M G Schäfer
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - A König
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - A Pinter
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - I Tegeder
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - G Geisslinger
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - R Gurke
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Mattelaer N, Van der Schueren B, Van Oudenhove L, Weltens N, Vangoitsenhoven R. The circulating and central endocannabinoid system in obesity and weight loss. Int J Obes (Lond) 2024; 48:1363-1382. [PMID: 38834796 DOI: 10.1038/s41366-024-01553-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Major advances have been made in obesity treatment, focusing on restoring disturbances along the gut-brain axis. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a neuromodulatory signaling system, present along the entire gut-brain axis, that plays a critical role in central and peripheral regulation of food intake and body weight. Evidence on the impact of weight loss on the ECS is, however, more limited. Therefore, we set out to review the existing literature for changes in central and circulating endocannabinoid levels after bariatric surgery and other weight loss strategies in humans. The PubMed, Embase and Web of Science databases were searched for relevant articles. Fifty-six human studies were identified. Most studies measuring circulating 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) found no difference between normal weight and obesity, or no correlation with BMI. In contrast, studies measuring circulating arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) found an increase or positive correlation with BMI. Two studies found a negative correlation between BMI and cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) receptor availability in the brain. Only one study investigated the effect of pharmacological weight management on circulating endocannabinoid concentrations and found no effect on AEA concentrations. So far, six studies investigated potential changes in circulating endocannabinoids after bariatric surgery and reported conflicting results. Available evidence does not univocally support that circulating endocannabinoids are upregulated in individuals with obesity, which may be explained by variability across studies in several potential confounding factors (e.g. age and sex) as well as heterogeneity within the obesity population (e.g. BMI only vs. intra-abdominal adiposity). While several studies investigated the effect of lifestyle interventions on the circulating ECS, more studies are warranted that focus on pharmacologically and surgically induced weight loss. In addition, we identified several research needs which should be fulfilled to better understand the role of the ECS in obesity and its treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nele Mattelaer
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for Brain-Gut Axis Studies, Translational Research in Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart Van der Schueren
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Endocrinology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lukas Van Oudenhove
- Laboratory for Brain-Gut Axis Studies, Translational Research in Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Weltens
- Laboratory for Brain-Gut Axis Studies, Translational Research in Gastrointestinal Disorders, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Roman Vangoitsenhoven
- Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
- Department of Endocrinology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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Goodman MT, Lombardi C, Torrens A, Bresee C, Saloman JL, Li L, Yang Y, Fisher WE, Fogel EL, Forsmark CE, Conwell DL, Hart PA, Park WG, Topazian M, Vege SS, Van Den Eeden SK, Bellin MD, Andersen DK, Serrano J, Yadav D, Pandol SJ, Piomelli D. Association of Serum Endocannabinoid Levels with Pancreatitis and Pancreatitis-Related Pain. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024. [PMID: 39291350 DOI: 10.1089/can.2024.0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims: This investigation examined the association of pancreatitis and pancreatitis-related pain with serum levels of two endocannabinoid molecules such as anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and two paracannabinoid molecules such as oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA). Methods: A case-control study was conducted within the Prospective Evaluation of Chronic Pancreatitis for Epidemiological and Translational Studies, including participants with no pancreas disease (N = 56), chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin or indeterminate chronic pancreatitis (CP) (N = 22), acute pancreatitis (N = 33), recurrent acute pancreatitis (N = 57), and definite CP (N = 63). Results: Circulating AEA concentrations were higher in women than in men (p = 0.0499), and PEA concentrations were higher in obese participants than those who were underweight/normal or overweight (p = 0.003). Asymptomatic controls with no pancreatic disease had significantly (p = 0.03) lower concentrations of AEA compared with all disease groups combined. The highest concentrations of AEA were observed in participants with acute pancreatitis, followed by those with recurrent acute pancreatitis, chronic abdominal pain/indeterminant CP, and definite CP. Participants with pancreatitis reporting abdominal pain in the past year had significantly (p = 0.04) higher concentrations of AEA compared with asymptomatic controls. Levels of 2-AG were significantly lower (p = 0.02) among participants reporting abdominal pain in the past week, and pain intensity was inversely associated with concentrations of 2-AG and OEA. Conclusions: Endocannabinoid levels may be associated with stage of pancreatitis, perhaps through activation of the CB1 receptor. Validation of our findings would support the investigation of novel therapeutics, including cannabinoid receptor-1 antagonists, in this patient population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc T Goodman
- Prevention and Control Program, Cancer Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Christina Lombardi
- Prevention and Control Program, Cancer Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Alexa Torrens
- Department and Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Catherine Bresee
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Research Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jami L Saloman
- Center for Pain Research, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Liang Li
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Yunlong Yang
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - William E Fisher
- Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Evan L Fogel
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Christopher E Forsmark
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Darwin L Conwell
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Phil A Hart
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Walter G Park
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California, USA
| | | | - Santhi S Vege
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Melena D Bellin
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Dana K Andersen
- Division of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jose Serrano
- Division of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Dhiraj Yadav
- Department of Medicine Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stephen J Pandol
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Department and Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
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Amir Hamzah K, Turner N, Nichols D, Ney LJ. Advances in targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods for endocannabinoid and N-acylethanolamine quantification in biological matrices: A systematic review. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2024. [PMID: 38958096 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Liquid chromatography paired with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the gold standard in measurement of endocannabinoid concentrations in biomatrices. We conducted a systematic review of literature to identify advances in targeted LC-MS/MS methods in the period 2017-2024. We found that LC-MS/MS methods for endocannabinoid quantification are relatively consistent both across time and across biomatrices. Recent advances have primarily been in three areas: (1) sample preparation techniques, specific to the chosen biomatrix; (2) the range of biomatrices tested, recently favoring blood matrices; and (3) the breadth of endocannabinoid and endocannabinoid-like analytes incorporated into assays. This review provides a summary of the recent literature and a guide for researchers looking to establish the best methods for quantifying endocannabinoids in a range of biomatrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalisa Amir Hamzah
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Department of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
| | - Natalie Turner
- The Centre for Children's Health Research, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Nichols
- Central Science Laboratory, Science and Engineering, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Luke J Ney
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Department of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
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Ahmed F, Torrens A, Mahler SV, Ferlenghi F, Huestis MA, Piomelli D. A Sensitive Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for the Simultaneous Analysis of Phytocannabinoids and Endocannabinoids in Plasma and Brain. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:371-385. [PMID: 36367975 PMCID: PMC10874825 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are major chemical constituents of cannabis, which may interact either directly or indirectly with the endocannabinoid and endocannabinoid-like ("paracannabinoid") systems, two lipid-based signaling complexes that play important roles in physiology. Legislative changes emphasize the need to understand how THC and CBD might impact endocannabinoid and paracannabinoid signaling, and to develop analytical approaches to study such impact. In this study, we describe a sensitive and accurate method for the simultaneous quantification of THC, its main oxidative metabolites [11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (11-OH-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-THC (11-COOH-THC)], CBD, and a representative set of endocannabinoid [anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol (2-AG)] and paracannabinoid [palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA)] compounds. Analyte separation relies on the temperature-dependent shape selectivity properties of polymerically bonded C18 stationary phases. Materials and Methods: Analytes are extracted from tissues using acetonitrile precipitation followed by phospholipid removal. The ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry protocol utilizes a commercially available C18 polymeric-bonded phase column and a simple gradient elution system. Results: Ten-point calibration curves show excellent linearity (R2>0.99) over a wide range of analyte concentrations (0.02-500 ng/mL). Lowest limits of quantification are 0.05 ng/mL for anandamide, 0.1 ng/mL for 11-OH-THC and OEA, 0.2 ng/mL for THC and CBD, 0.5 ng/mL for 11-COOH-THC, 1.0 ng/mL for 2-AG, and 2.0 ng/mL for PEA. The lowest limits of detection are 0.02 ng/mL for anandamide, 0.05 ng/mL for 11-OH-THC and OEA, 0.1 ng/mL for THC and CBD, 0.2 ng/mL for 11-COOH-THC, 0.5 ng/mL for 2-AG, and 1.0 ng/mL for PEA. Conclusions: An application of the method is presented, which showed that phytocannabinoid administration elevates endocannabinoid levels in plasma and brain of adolescent male and female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faizy Ahmed
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Alexa Torrens
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Stephen V. Mahler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Francesca Ferlenghi
- Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti e del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
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Obermanns J, Meiser H, Hoberg S, Vesterager CS, Schulz F, Juckel G, Emons B. Genetic variation of the 5-HT1A rs6295, 5-HT2A rs6311, and CNR1 rs1049353 and an altered endocannabinoid system in depressed patients. Brain Behav 2023; 13:e3323. [PMID: 37984468 PMCID: PMC10726863 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The reasons for developing depression are not fully understood. However, it is known that the serotonergic system plays a role in the etiology, but the endocannabinoid system receives attention. METHOD In this study, 161 patients with a depressive disorder and 161 healthy participants were examined for the distribution of the CNR1 rs4940353, 5-HT2A rs6311, and 5-HT1A rs6295 by high-resolution melting genotyping. The concentration of arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in the blood was measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Additionally, depression and anxiety symptoms were evaluated based on self-questionnaires. Fifty-nine patients participated in a second appointment to measure the concentration of AEA, 2-AG, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. RESULTS We observed higher AEA and decreased 2-AG concentrations in patients with depression compared to healthy participants. During the treatment, the concentrations of AEA and 2-AG did not change significantly. In patients higher symptoms of anxiety correlated with lower concentrations of 2-AG. Gender differences were found concerning increased 2-AG concentration in male patients and increased anxiety symptoms in female patients. Genotypic variations of 5-HT1A rs6295 and 5-HT2A rs6311 are associated with altered serotonergic activity and serotonin content in patients. CONCLUSION In conclusion, it seems that the endocannabinoid system, especially the endocannabinoids 2-AG and AEA, and genetic variations of the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A could play a role in patients with depression and may be involved in a depressive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Obermanns
- LWL University HospitalDepartment of PsychiatryPsychotherapy and Preventive MedicineRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Hanna Meiser
- LWL University HospitalDepartment of PsychiatryPsychotherapy and Preventive MedicineRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Saskia Hoberg
- LWL University HospitalDepartment of PsychiatryPsychotherapy and Preventive MedicineRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | | | - Frank Schulz
- Chemistry and Biochemistry of Natural ProductsRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Georg Juckel
- LWL University HospitalDepartment of PsychiatryPsychotherapy and Preventive MedicineRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Barbara Emons
- LWL University HospitalDepartment of PsychiatryPsychotherapy and Preventive MedicineRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
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Woźniczka K, Konieczyński P, Plenis A, Bączek T, Roszkowska A. SPME as a green sample-preparation technique for the monitoring of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids in complex matrices. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1117-1134. [PMID: 38024858 PMCID: PMC10657972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS), particularly its signaling pathways and ligands, has garnered considerable interest in recent years. Along with clinical work investigating the ECS' functions, including its role in the development of neurological and inflammatory conditions, much research has focused on developing analytical protocols enabling the precise monitoring of the levels and metabolism of the most potent ECS ligands: exogenous phytocannabinoids (PCs) and endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids, ECs). Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is an advanced, non-exhaustive sample-preparation technique that facilitates the precise and efficient isolation of trace amounts of analytes, thus making it appealing for the analysis of PCs and ECs in complex matrices of plant and animal/human origin. In this paper, we review recent forensic medicine and toxicological studies wherein SPME has been applied to monitor levels of PCs and ECs in complex matrices, determine their effects on organism physiology, and assess their role in the development of several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Woźniczka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Paweł Konieczyński
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Alina Plenis
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bączek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Anna Roszkowska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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8
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Roszkowska A, Klejbor I, Bogusiewicz J, Plenis A, Bojko B, Kowalik K, Moryś J, Bączek T. Monitoring of age- and gender-related alterations of endocannabinoid levels in selected brain regions with the use of SPME probes. Metabolomics 2023; 19:40. [PMID: 37043024 PMCID: PMC10097736 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-023-02007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The endocannabinoid system consists of different types of receptors, enzymes and endocannabinoids (ECs), which are involved in several physiological processes, but also play important role in the development and progression of central nervous system disorders. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to apply precise and sensitive methodology for monitoring of four ECs, namely anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), N-arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA), 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (2-AGe) in selected brain regions of female and male rats at different stages of development (young, adult and old). METHODS Biocompatible solid-phase microextraction (SPME) probes were introduced into the intact (non-homogenized) brain structures for isolation of four ECs, and the extracts were subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis. Two chemometric approaches, namely hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were applied to provide more information about the levels of 2-AG and AEA in different brain structures. RESULTS 2-AG and AEA were extracted and could be quantified in each brain region; the level of 2-AG was significantly higher in comparison to the level of AEA. Two highly unstable ECs, NADA and 2-AGe, were captured by SPME probes from intact brain samples for the first time. CONCLUSION SPME probes were able to isolate highly unstable endogenous compounds from intact tissue, and provided new tools for precise analysis of the level and distribution of ECs in different brain regions. Monitoring of ECs in brain samples is important not only in physiological conditions, but also may contribute to better understanding of the functioning of the endocannabinoid system in various disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Roszkowska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Ilona Klejbor
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Medical Sciences, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce, Poland
| | - Joanna Bogusiewicz
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Pharmacology, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Alina Plenis
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Barbara Bojko
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Pharmacology, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kowalik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Janusz Moryś
- Department of Normal Anatomy, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bączek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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Sens A, Rischke S, Hahnefeld L, Dorochow E, Schäfer SMG, Thomas D, Köhm M, Geisslinger G, Behrens F, Gurke R. Pre-analytical sample handling standardization for reliable measurement of metabolites and lipids in LC-MS-based clinical research. J Mass Spectrom Adv Clin Lab 2023; 28:35-46. [PMID: 36872954 PMCID: PMC9975683 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmsacl.2023.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The emerging disciplines of lipidomics and metabolomics show great potential for the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers, but appropriate pre-analytical sample-handling procedures are critical because several analytes are prone to ex vivo distortions during sample collection. To test how the intermediate storage temperature and storage period of plasma samples from K3EDTA whole-blood collection tubes affect analyte concentrations, we assessed samples from non-fasting healthy volunteers (n = 9) for a broad spectrum of metabolites, including lipids and lipid mediators, using a well-established LC-MS-based platform. We used a fold change-based approach as a relative measure of analyte stability to evaluate 489 analytes, employing a combination of targeted LC-MS/MS and LC-HRMS screening. The concentrations of many analytes were found to be reliable, often justifying less strict sample handling; however, certain analytes were unstable, supporting the need for meticulous processing. We make four data-driven recommendations for sample-handling protocols with varying degrees of stringency, based on the maximum number of analytes and the feasibility of routine clinical implementation. These protocols also enable the simple evaluation of biomarker candidates based on their analyte-specific vulnerability to ex vivo distortions. In summary, pre-analytical sample handling has a major effect on the suitability of certain metabolites as biomarkers, including several lipids and lipid mediators. Our sample-handling recommendations will increase the reliability and quality of samples when such metabolites are necessary for routine clinical diagnosis.
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Key Words
- 1-AG, 1-arachidonoyl glycerol
- 1-LG, 1-linoleoyl glycerol
- 2-AG, 2-arachidonoyl glycerol
- 2-LG, 2- linoleoyl glycerol
- ACN, acetonitrile
- AEA, arachidonoyl ethanolamide
- BHT, 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol
- CAR, carnitine
- EC, endocannabinoid
- FC, fold change
- FT, freezing temperature/storage in ice water
- HETE, hydroxyeicosatetraenoate
- HRMS, high-resolution mass spectrometry
- IRB, Institutional Review Board
- IS, internal standard
- K3EDTA plasma sampling
- K3EDTA, tripotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
- LC, liquid chromatography
- LEA, linoleoyl ethanolamide
- LLE, liquid–liquid extraction
- LLOQ, lowest limit of quantification
- LPA, lysophosphatidic acid
- LPC O, lysophosphatidylcholine-ether
- LPC, lysophosphatidylcholine
- LPE, lysophosphatidylethanolamine
- LPG, lysophosphatidylglycerol
- LPI, lysophosphatic inositol
- Lipidomics
- MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry
- MTBE, methyl tertiary-butyl ether
- MeOH, methanol
- Metabolomics
- OEA, oleoyl ethanolamide
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- PC, phohsphatidylcholine
- PE, phosphotidylethanolamine
- PEA, palmitoyl ethanolamide
- PI, phosphatidylinositol
- Pre-analytics
- QC, quality control
- REC, Research Ethics Committee
- RT, room temperature
- Ref, reference sample
- SEA, stearoyl ethanolamide
- SPE, solid-phase extraction
- STD, calibration standard
- Sampling protocol
- VEA, vaccenic acid ethanolamid
- WB, whole blood
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sens
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - S Rischke
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - L Hahnefeld
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - E Dorochow
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - S M G Schäfer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - D Thomas
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - M Köhm
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Rheumatology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - G Geisslinger
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - F Behrens
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Rheumatology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - R Gurke
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases CIMD, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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10
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Myers MN, Abou-Rjeileh U, Chirivi M, Parales-Girón J, Lock AL, Tam J, Zachut M, Contreras GA. Cannabinoid-1 receptor activation modulates lipid mobilization and adipogenesis in the adipose tissue of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:3650-3661. [PMID: 36907764 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-22556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Amplified adipose tissue (AT) lipolysis and suppressed lipogenesis characterize the periparturient period of dairy cows. The intensity of lipolysis recedes with the progression of lactation; however, when lipolysis is excessive and prolonged, disease risk is exacerbated and productivity compromised. Interventions that minimize lipolysis while maintaining adequate supply of energy and enhancing lipogenesis may improve periparturient cows' health and lactation performance. Cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB1R) activation in rodent AT enhances the lipogenic and adipogenic capacity of adipocytes, yet the effects in dairy cow AT remain unknown. Using a synthetic CB1R agonist and an antagonist, we determined the effects of CB1R stimulation on lipolysis, lipogenesis, and adipogenesis in the AT of dairy cows. Adipose tissue explants were collected from healthy, nonlactating and nongestating (NLNG; n = 6) or periparturient (n = 12) cows at 1 wk before parturition and at 2 and 3 wk postpartum (PP1 and PP2, respectively). Explants were treated with the β-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol (1 μM) in the presence of the CB1R agonist arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA) ± the CB1R antagonist rimonabant (RIM). Lipolysis was quantified based on glycerol release. We found that ACEA reduced lipolysis in NLNG cows; however, it did not exhibit a direct effect on AT lipolysis in periparturient cows. Inhibition of CB1R with RIM in postpartum cow AT did not alter lipolysis. To evaluate adipogenesis and lipogenesis, preadipocytes isolated from NLNG cows' AT were induced to differentiate in the presence or absence of ACEA ± RIM for 4 and 12 d. Live cell imaging, lipid accumulation, and expressions of key adipogenic and lipogenic markers were assessed. Preadipocytes treated with ACEA had higher adipogenesis, whereas ACEA+RIM reduced it. Adipocytes treated with ACEA and RIM for 12 d exhibited enhanced lipogenesis compared with untreated cells (control). Lipid content was reduced in ACEA+RIM but not with RIM alone. Collectively, our results support that lipolysis may be reduced by CB1R stimulation in NLNG cows but not in periparturient cows. In addition, our findings demonstrate that adipogenesis and lipogenesis are enhanced by activation of CB1R in the AT of NLNG dairy cows. In summary, we provide initial evidence which supports that the sensitivity of the AT endocannabinoid system to endocannabinoids, and its ability to modulate AT lipolysis, adipogenesis, and lipogenesis, vary based on dairy cows' lactation stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison N Myers
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - Ursula Abou-Rjeileh
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - Miguel Chirivi
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - Jair Parales-Girón
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - Adam L Lock
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - Joseph Tam
- Obesity and Metabolism Laboratory, Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel 9112001
| | - Maya Zachut
- Department of Ruminant Science, Institute of Animal Sciences, Volcani Institute, Rishon LeZion, Israel 7505101
| | - G Andres Contreras
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824.
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11
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Miettinen K, Leelahakorn N, Almeida A, Zhao Y, Hansen LR, Nikolajsen IE, Andersen JB, Givskov M, Staerk D, Bak S, Kampranis SC. A GPCR-based yeast biosensor for biomedical, biotechnological, and point-of-use cannabinoid determination. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3664. [PMID: 35760809 PMCID: PMC9237071 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31357-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic cells use G-protein coupled receptors to sense diverse signals, ranging from chemical compounds to light. Here, we exploit the remarkable sensing capacity of G-protein coupled receptors to construct yeast-based biosensors for real-life applications. To establish proof-of-concept, we focus on cannabinoids because of their neuromodulatory and immunomodulatory activities. We construct a CB2 receptor-based biosensor, optimize it to achieve high sensitivity and dynamic range, and prove its effectiveness in three applications of increasing difficulty. First, we screen a compound library to discover agonists and antagonists. Second, we analyze 54 plants to discover a new phytocannabinoid, dugesialactone. Finally, we develop a robust portable device, analyze body-fluid samples, and confidently detect designer drugs like JWH-018. These examples demonstrate the potential of yeast-based biosensors to enable diverse applications that can be implemented by non-specialists. Taking advantage of the extensive sensing repertoire of G-protein coupled receptors, this technology can be extended to detect numerous compounds. GPCRs are used for diverse sensing in eukaryotes. Here the authors use GPCRs to construct yeast-based biosensors, focussing on cannabinoids, and use these to screen agonists and antagonists, as well as generate a portable detection device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Miettinen
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Nattawat Leelahakorn
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Aldo Almeida
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.,Bioremediation Laboratory, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Carretera Torreón-Matamoros km. 7.5, Torreón, Coahuila, 27000, Mexico
| | - Yong Zhao
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Lukas R Hansen
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Iben E Nikolajsen
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Jens B Andersen
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Givskov
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dan Staerk
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Bak
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Sotirios C Kampranis
- Biochemical Engineering Group, Plant Biochemistry Section, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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12
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Kratz D, Sens A, Schäfer SMG, Hahnefeld L, Geisslinger G, Thomas D, Gurke R. Pre-analytical challenges for the quantification of endocannabinoids in human serum. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1190:123102. [PMID: 35026652 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (ECs) are potent lipid mediators with high physiological relevance. They are involved in a wide variety of diseases like depression or multiple sclerosis and are closely connected to metabolic parameters in humans. Therefore, their suitability as a biomarker in different (patho-)physiological conditions is discussed intensively and predominantly investigated by analyzing systemic concentrations in easily accessible matrices like blood. Carefully designed pre-analytical sample handling is of major importance for high-quality data, but harmonization is not achieved yet. Whole blood is either processed to serum or plasma before the onset of analytical workflows and while knowledge about pre-analytical challenges in plasma handling is thorough they were not systematically investigated for serum. Therefore, the ECs AEA and 2-AG, and closely related EC-like substances 1-AG, DHEA, and PEA were examined by LC-MS/MS in serum samples of nine healthy volunteers employing different pre-analytical sample handling protocols, including prolonged coagulation, and storage after centrifugation at room temperature (RT) or on ice. Furthermore, all analytes were also assessed in plasma samples obtained from the same individuals at the same time points to investigate the comparability between those two blood-based matrices regarding obtained concentrations and their 2-AG/1-AG ratio. This study shows that ECs and EC-like substances in serum samples were significantly higher than in plasma and are especially prone to ex vivo changes during initial and prolonged storage for coagulation at RT. Storage on ice after centrifugation is less critical. However, storage at RT further increases 1-AG and 2-AG concentrations, while also lowering the already reduced 2-AG/1-AG ratio due to isomerization. Thus, avoidance of prolonged processing at RT can increase data quality if serum as the matrix of choice is unavoidable. However, serum preparation in itself is expected to initiate changes of physiological concentrations as standard precautionary measures like fast and cooled processing can only be utilized by using plasma, which should be the preferred matrix for analyses of ECs and EC-like substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kratz
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - A Sens
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - S M G Schäfer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - L Hahnefeld
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - G Geisslinger
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - D Thomas
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - R Gurke
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, pharmazentrum frankfurt/ZAFES, University Hospital of Goethe-University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), and Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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