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Qu W, Jeong A, Zhong R, Thieschafer JS, Gram A, Li L. Deletion of Small GTPase H-Ras Rescues Memory Deficits and Reduces Amyloid Plaque-Associated Dendritic Spine Loss in Transgenic Alzheimer's Mice. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:495-511. [PMID: 36287323 PMCID: PMC10771223 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03082-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder, affecting millions of lives without a cure. While the molecular mechanism of AD remains obscure, emerging evidence suggests that small GTPases, a group of GTP-binding proteins that regulate a plethora of essential cellular events, modulate the pathogenic process of AD. Among those, the small GTPase H-Ras, extensively studied in cancer, regulates synaptic function, and both upstream and downstream signaling pathways of H-Ras have been implicated in AD. However, the role of H-Ras per se in AD pathogenesis had not been explored previously. In the present study, the impact of Hras deletion on cognitive function and amyloid pathology was investigated in transgenic APP/PS1 mice of AD. Behavioral assessments showed that the absence of Hras rescued spatial memory deficit in APP/PS1 mice at 9 months of age. The pathological evaluation demonstrated that Hras deletion reduced cortical amyloid deposition and astrogliosis. Furthermore, Hras deficiency protected against amyloid plaque-associated loss of dendritic spines in APP/PS1 mice. Intriguingly, canonical signaling pathways downstream of H-Ras were not affected by the absence of Hras in the brain. Unbiased transcriptomic analysis revealed that lack of H-Ras affected the expression of select genes in the brain of AD mice and identified a novel connection between H-Ras and Annexin A4, a calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding protein that has been shown to regulate membrane repair, neuroinflammation, and calcium homeostasis. Taken together, these data indicate that H-Ras modifies the pathogenic process of AD and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Qu
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Angela Jeong
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Rui Zhong
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Josslen S Thieschafer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Andrea Gram
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ling Li
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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2
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Roy A, Sharma S, Nag TC, Katyal J, Gupta YK, Jain S. Cognitive Dysfunction and Anxiety Resulting from Synaptic Downscaling, Hippocampal Atrophy, and Ventricular Enlargement with Intracerebroventricular Streptozotocin Injection in Male Wistar Rats. Neurotox Res 2022; 40:2179-2202. [PMID: 36069980 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00563-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-resistant brain state is proposed to be the early sign of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which can be studied in the intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (ICV-STZ) rodent model. ICV-STZ is reported to induce sporadic AD with the majority of the disease hallmarks as phenotype. On the other hand, available experimental evidence has used varying doses of STZ (< 1 to 3 mg/kg) and studied its effect for different study durations, ranging from 14 to 270 days. Though these studies suggest 3 mg/kg of ICV-STZ to be the optimum dose for progressive pathogenesis, the reason for such is elusive. Here, we sought to investigate the mechanism of action of 3 mg/kg ICV-STZ on cognitive and non-cognitive aspects at a follow-up interval of 2 weeks for 2 months. On the 60th day, we examined the layer thickness, cell density, ventricular volume, spine density, protein expression related to brain metabolism, and mitochondrial function by histological examination. The findings suggest a progressive loss of a spatial, episodic, and avoidance memory with an increase in anxiety in a span of 2 months. Furthermore, hippocampal neurodegeneration, ventricular enlargement, diffused amyloid plaque deposition, loss of spine in the dentate gyrus, and imbalance in energy homeostasis were found on the 60th day post-injection. Interestingly, AD rats showed a uniform fraction of time spent in four quadrants of the water maze with a change in strategy when they were exposed to height. Our findings reveal that ICV-STZ injection at a dose of 3 mg/kg can cause cognitive and neuropsychiatric abnormalities due to structural loss both at the neuronal as well as the synaptic level, which is tightly associated with the change in neuronal metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avishek Roy
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India. .,UMR-5297, Interdisciplinary Institute of Neurosciences, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France.
| | - Sakshi Sharma
- School of Interdisciplinary Research, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
| | - Tapas Chandra Nag
- Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
| | - Jatinder Katyal
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Suman Jain
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
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3
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Walker CK, Greathouse KM, Liu E, Muhammad HM, Boros BD, Freeman CD, Seo JV, Herskowitz JH. Comparison of Golgi-Cox and Intracellular Loading of Lucifer Yellow for Dendritic Spine Density and Morphology Analysis in the Mouse Brain. Neuroscience 2022; 498:1-18. [PMID: 35752428 PMCID: PMC9420811 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic spines are small protrusions on dendrites that serve as the postsynaptic site of the majority of excitatory synapses. These structures are important for normal synaptic transmission, and alterations in their density and morphology have been documented in various disease states. Over 130 years ago, Ramón y Cajal used Golgi-stained tissue sections to study dendritic morphology. Despite the array of technological advances, including iontophoretic microinjection of Lucifer yellow (LY) fluorescent dye, Golgi staining continues to be one of the most popular approaches to visualize dendritic spines. Here, we compared dendritic spine density and morphology among pyramidal neurons in layers 2/3 of the mouse medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and pyramidal neurons in hippocampal CA1 using three-dimensional digital reconstructions of (1) brightfield microscopy z-stacks of Golgi-impregnated dendrites and (2) confocal microscopy z-stacks of LY-filled dendrites. Analysis of spine density revealed that the LY microinjection approach enabled detection of approximately three times as many spines as the Golgi staining approach in both brain regions. Spine volume measurements were larger using Golgi staining compared to LY microinjection in both mPFC and CA1. Spine length was mostly comparable between techniques in both regions. In the mPFC, head diameter was similar for Golgi staining and LY microinjection. However, in CA1, head diameter was approximately 50% smaller on LY-filled dendrites compared to Golgi staining. These results indicate that Golgi staining and LY microinjection yield different spine density and morphology measurements, with Golgi staining failing to detect dendritic spines and overestimating spine size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney K Walker
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Kelsey M Greathouse
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Evan Liu
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Hamad M Muhammad
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Benjamin D Boros
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Cameron D Freeman
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Jung Vin Seo
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - Jeremy H Herskowitz
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA.
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4
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Vijayan M, Alvir RV, Alvir RV, Bunquin LE, Pradeepkiran JA, Reddy PH. A partial reduction of VDAC1 enhances mitophagy, autophagy, synaptic activities in a transgenic Tau mouse model. Aging Cell 2022; 21:e13663. [PMID: 35801276 PMCID: PMC9381918 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of mental dementia in the aged population. AD is characterized by the progressive decline of memory and multiple cognitive functions, and changes in behavior and personality. Recent research has revealed age-dependent increased levels of VDAC1 in postmortem AD brains and cerebral cortices of APP, APPxPS1, and 3xAD.Tg mice. Further, we found abnormal interaction between VDAC1 and P-Tau in the AD brains, leading to mitochondrial structural and functional defects. Our current study aimed to understand the impact of a partial reduction of voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) protein on mitophagy/autophagy, mitochondrial and synaptic activities, and behavior changes in transgenic TAU mice in Alzheimer's disease. To determine if a partial reduction of VDAC1 reduces mitochondrial and synaptic toxicities in transgenic Tau (P301L) mice, we crossed heterozygote VDAC1 knockout (VDAC1+/- ) mice with TAU mice and generated double mutant (VDAC1+/- /TAU) mice. We assessed phenotypic behavior, protein levels of mitophagy, autophagy, synaptic, other key proteins, mitochondrial morphology, and dendritic spines in TAU mice relative to double mutant mice. Partial reduction of VDAC1 rescued the TAU-induced behavioral impairments such as motor coordination and exploratory behavioral changes, and learning and spatial memory impairments in VDAC1+/- /TAU mice. Protein levels of mitophagy, autophagy, and synaptic proteins were significantly increased in double mutant mice compared with TAU mice. In addition, dendritic spines were significantly increased; the mitochondrial number was significantly reduced, and mitochondrial length was increased in double mutant mice. Based on these observations, we conclude that reduced VDAC1 is beneficial in symptomatic-transgenic TAU mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murali Vijayan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Rainier Vladlen Alvir
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Razelle Vladlen Alvir
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Lloyd E Bunquin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | | | - P Hemachandra Reddy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA.,Department of Neurology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA.,Department of Public Health, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA.,Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas, USA
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5
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Therapeutic Approach to Alzheimer’s Disease: Current Treatments and New Perspectives. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14061117. [PMID: 35745693 PMCID: PMC9228613 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14061117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. The pathophysiology of this disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-β, leading to the formation of senile plaques, and by the intracellular presence of neurofibrillary tangles based on hyperphosphorylated tau protein. In the therapeutic approach to AD, we can identify three important fronts: the approved drugs currently available for the treatment of the disease, which include aducanumab, donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, memantine, and a combination of memantine and donepezil; therapies under investigation that work mainly on Aβ pathology and tau pathology, and which include γ-secretase inhibitors, β-secretase inhibitors, α-secretase modulators, aggregation inhibitors, metal interfering drugs, drugs that enhance Aβ clearance, inhibitors of tau protein hyperphosphorylation, tau protein aggregation inhibitors, and drugs that promote the clearance of tau, and finally, other alternative therapies designed to improve lifestyle, thus contributing to the prevention of the disease. Therefore, the aim of this review was to analyze and describe current treatments and possible future alternatives in the therapeutic approach to AD.
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6
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Garad M, Edelmann E, Leßmann V. Impairment of Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity at Schaffer Collateral-CA1 Synapses in Adult APP/PS1 Mice Depends on Proximity of Aβ Plaques. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1378. [PMID: 33573114 PMCID: PMC7866519 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifaceted neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and irreversible cognitive decline, with no disease-modifying therapy until today. Spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is a Hebbian form of synaptic plasticity, and a strong candidate to underlie learning and memory at the single neuron level. Although several studies reported impaired long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus in AD mouse models, the impact of amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology on STDP in the hippocampus is not known. Using whole cell patch clamp recordings in CA1 pyramidal neurons of acute transversal hippocampal slices, we investigated timing-dependent (t-) LTP induced by STDP paradigms at Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapses in slices of 6-month-old adult APP/PS1 AD model mice. Our results show that t-LTP can be induced even in fully developed adult mice with different and even low repeat STDP paradigms. Further, adult APP/PS1 mice displayed intact t-LTP induced by 1 presynaptic EPSP paired with 4 postsynaptic APs (6× 1:4) or 1 presynaptic EPSP paired with 1 postsynaptic AP (100× 1:1) STDP paradigms when the position of Aβ plaques relative to recorded CA1 neurons in the slice were not considered. However, when Aβ plaques were live stained with the fluorescent dye methoxy-X04, we observed that in CA1 neurons with their somata <200 µm away from the border of the nearest Aβ plaque, t-LTP induced by 6× 1:4 stimulation was significantly impaired, while t-LTP was unaltered in CA1 neurons >200 µm away from plaques. Treatment of APP/PS1 mice with the anti-inflammatory drug fingolimod that we previously showed to alleviate synaptic deficits in this AD mouse model did not rescue the impaired t-LTP. Our data reveal that overexpression of APP and PS1 mutations in AD model mice disrupts t-LTP in an Aβ plaque distance-dependent manner, but cannot be improved by fingolimod (FTY720) that has been shown to rescue conventional LTP in CA1 of APP/PS1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Machhindra Garad
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (M.G.); (E.E.)
| | - Elke Edelmann
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (M.G.); (E.E.)
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Volkmar Leßmann
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (M.G.); (E.E.)
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
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7
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Zhang JW, Tabassum S, Jiang JX, Long C. Optimized Golgi-Cox Staining Validated in the Hippocampus of Spared Nerve Injury Mouse Model. Front Neuroanat 2020; 14:585513. [PMID: 33240049 PMCID: PMC7680754 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2020.585513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Golgi-Cox staining has been used extensively in neuroscience. Despite its unique ability to identify neuronal interconnections and neural processes, its lack of consistency and time-consuming nature reduces its appeal to researchers. Here, using a spared nerve injury (SNI) mouse model and control mice, we present a modified Golgi-Cox staining protocol that can stain mouse hippocampal neurons within 8 days. In this improved procedure, the mouse brain was fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and then stored in a modified Golgi-Cox solution at 37 ± 2°C. The impregnation period was reduced from 5–14 days to 36–48 h. Brain slices prepared in this way could be preserved long-term at –80°C for up to 8 weeks. In addition to minimizing frequently encountered problems and reducing the time required to conduct the method, our modified protocol maintained, and even improved, the quality of traditional Golgi-Cox staining as applied to hippocampal neuronal morphology in SNI mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Wei Zhang
- Panyu Central Hospital, South China Normal University-Panyu Central Hospital Joint Laboratory of Translational Medical Research, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sidra Tabassum
- Precise Genome Engineering Center, School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin-Xiang Jiang
- Precise Genome Engineering Center, School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cheng Long
- Panyu Central Hospital, South China Normal University-Panyu Central Hospital Joint Laboratory of Translational Medical Research, Guangzhou, China.,School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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8
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Kartalou GI, Salgueiro-Pereira AR, Endres T, Lesnikova A, Casarotto P, Pousinha P, Delanoe K, Edelmann E, Castrén E, Gottmann K, Marie H, Lessmann V. Anti-Inflammatory Treatment with FTY720 Starting after Onset of Symptoms Reverses Synaptic Deficits in an AD Mouse Model. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238957. [PMID: 33255764 PMCID: PMC7734581 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic approaches providing effective medication for Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients after disease onset are urgently needed. Previous studies in AD mouse models suggested that physical exercise or changed lifestyle can delay AD-related synaptic and memory dysfunctions when treatment started in juvenile animals long before onset of disease symptoms, while a pharmacological treatment that can reverse synaptic and memory deficits in AD mice was thus far not identified. Repurposing food and drug administration (FDA)-approved drugs for treatment of AD is a promising way to reduce the time to bring such medication into clinical practice. The sphingosine-1 phosphate analog fingolimod (FTY720) was approved recently for treatment of multiple sclerosis patients. Here, we addressed whether fingolimod rescues AD-related synaptic deficits and memory dysfunction in an amyloid precursor protein/presenilin-1 (APP/PS1) AD mouse model when medication starts after onset of symptoms (at five months). Male mice received intraperitoneal injections of fingolimod for one to two months starting at five to six months. This treatment rescued spine density as well as long-term potentiation in hippocampal cornu ammonis-1 (CA1) pyramidal neurons, that were both impaired in untreated APP/PS1 animals at six to seven months of age. Immunohistochemical analysis with markers of microgliosis (ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1; Iba1) and astrogliosis (glial fibrillary acid protein; GFAP) revealed that our fingolimod treatment regime strongly down regulated neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and neocortex of this AD model. These effects were accompanied by a moderate reduction of Aβ accumulation in hippocampus and neocortex. Our results suggest that fingolimod, when applied after onset of disease symptoms in an APP/PS1 mouse model, rescues synaptic pathology that is believed to underlie memory deficits in AD mice, and that this beneficial effect is mediated via anti-neuroinflammatory actions of the drug on microglia and astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia-Ioanna Kartalou
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (G.-I.K.); (T.E.); (E.E.)
- Institute of Neuro- and Sensory Physiology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Ana Rita Salgueiro-Pereira
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, IPMC, UMR7275, 06560 Valbonne, France; (A.R.S.-P.); (P.P.); (K.D.); (H.M.)
| | - Thomas Endres
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (G.-I.K.); (T.E.); (E.E.)
| | - Angelina Lesnikova
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland; (A.L.); (P.C.); (E.C.)
| | - Plinio Casarotto
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland; (A.L.); (P.C.); (E.C.)
| | - Paula Pousinha
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, IPMC, UMR7275, 06560 Valbonne, France; (A.R.S.-P.); (P.P.); (K.D.); (H.M.)
| | - Kevin Delanoe
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, IPMC, UMR7275, 06560 Valbonne, France; (A.R.S.-P.); (P.P.); (K.D.); (H.M.)
| | - Elke Edelmann
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (G.-I.K.); (T.E.); (E.E.)
| | - Eero Castrén
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland; (A.L.); (P.C.); (E.C.)
| | - Kurt Gottmann
- Institute of Neuro- and Sensory Physiology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
- Correspondence: (K.G.); (V.L.)
| | - Hélène Marie
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, IPMC, UMR7275, 06560 Valbonne, France; (A.R.S.-P.); (P.P.); (K.D.); (H.M.)
| | - Volkmar Lessmann
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; (G.-I.K.); (T.E.); (E.E.)
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Correspondence: (K.G.); (V.L.)
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