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Zhao Z, Zhang Y, Luo B. The role of pyroptosis in viral infection. Arch Virol 2024; 169:69. [PMID: 38456965 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-024-05978-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Pyroptosis, also known as inflammatory necrosis, is a form of programmed cell death, which is an important natural immune response. Pyroptosis plays a major role in combating pathogenic infections. The mechanism of pyroptosis is distinct from other forms of cell death and is characterized by its dependence on inflammatory caspases (mainly caspases 1, 4, 5, and 11). Activation of NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammatory vesicles is involved in caspase-1 activation and cleavage, which in turn triggers cleavage and multimerization of multiple gasdermin family members, including gasdermin-D (GSDMD). This further leads to cell perforation and cellular distension, causing cell membrane rupture, resulting in a massive efflux of cell contents, which triggers inflammatory reactions. In recent years, detailed study of viral diseases, has demonstrated that pyroptosis is closely associated with the development of viral diseases. This article focuses on the mechanism of pyroptosis and the connection between pyroptosis and viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Zhao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zibo Central Hospital, Zibo, 255036, China.
| | - Bing Luo
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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2
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Blocking Autophagy in M1 Macrophages Enhances Virus Replication and Eye Disease in Ocularly Infected Transgenic Mice. J Virol 2022; 96:e0140122. [PMID: 36286481 PMCID: PMC9645210 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01401-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy plays a critical role in clearing, disassembling, and recycling damaged cells, thus limiting inflammation. The HSV-1 γ34.5 gene is involved in neurovirulence and immune evasion by blocking autophagy in infected cells.
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Liu J, Liao M, Yan Y, Yang H, Wang H, Zhou J. Rabies virus phosphoprotein P5 binding to BECN1 regulates self-replication by BECN1-mediated autophagy signaling pathway. Cell Commun Signal 2020; 18:153. [PMID: 32948206 PMCID: PMC7499888 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-020-00644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rabies virus (RABV) is reported to encode five phosphoproteins (P), which are involved in viral genomic replication, axonal transport, oxidative stress, interferon antagonism, and autophagy induction. However, the functions of the different P proteins are poorly understood. Methods Immunofluorescence staining and western blot were performed to detect the autophagy activity, the form of ring-like structure, and the colocalization of BECN1 and P. Co-immunoprecipitation was performed to detect the interaction between P and BECN1. QRT-PCR and TCID50 assay were performed to detect the replication level of RABV. Small interfering RNA was used to detect the autophagy signaling pathway. Results We found that P5 attaches to N-terminal residues 1–139 of BECN1 (beclin1) on the BECN1 ring-like structure through amino acid residues 173–222 of P5. Subsequently, we found that P5-induced autophagosomes did not fuse with lysosomes. Becn1 silencing did not recover P5 overexpression-induced promotion of RABV replication. Mechanistically, RABV protein PΔN82 (P5) induced incomplete autophagy via the BECN1-mediated signaling pathway. Conclusions Our data indicate that P5 binding to the BECN1 ring benefits RABV replication by inducing BECN1 signaling pathway-dependent incomplete autophagy, which provides a potential target for antiviral drugs against RABV. Video abstract
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Liu
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China
| | - Min Liao
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China.
| | - Yan Yan
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China
| | - Hui Yang
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China
| | - Hailong Wang
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China
| | - Jiyong Zhou
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Center for Veterinary Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310058, PR China.,Collaborative innovation center and State Key laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China
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4
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Manivanh R, Mehrbach J, Charron AJ, Grassetti A, Cerón S, Taylor SA, Cabrera JR, Gerber S, Leib DA. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 ICP34.5 Alters Mitochondrial Dynamics in Neurons. J Virol 2020; 94:e01784-19. [PMID: 32376626 PMCID: PMC7343198 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01784-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of viral genes and activation of innate antiviral responses during infection result in an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and toxic by-products of energy metabolism which can lead to cell death. The mitochondrion and its associated proteins are crucial regulators of these responses and related pathways such as autophagy and apoptosis. Through a mass spectrometry approach, we have shown that the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) neurovirulence- and autophagy-modulating protein ICP34.5 interacts with numerous mitochondrion-associated factors. Specifically, we showed that amino acids 68 to 87 of ICP34.5, the domain that binds beclin1 and controls neurovirulence, are necessary for interactions with PGAM5, KEAP1, and other regulators of the antioxidant response, mitochondrial trafficking, and programmed cell death. We further show that while this domain interacts with multiple cellular stress response factors, it does not alter apoptosis or antioxidant gene expression. That said, the attenuated replication of a recombinant virus lacking residues 68 to 87 (termed Δ68-87) in primary human fibroblasts was restored by addition of ferric nitrate. Furthermore, in primary mouse neurons, the perinuclear localization of mitochondria that follows infection with HSV-1 was notably absent following Δ68-87 infection. Through this 20-amino-acid domain, ICP34.5 significantly reduces mitochondrial motility in axons of neurons. We propose the hypothesis that ICP34.5 promotes perinuclear mitochondrial localization by modulating transport of mitochondria through interaction with PGAM5. These data expand upon previous observations of altered mitochondrial dynamics following alphaherpesvirus infections and identify a key determinant of this activity during HSV-1 infections.IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus persists lifelong in neurons and can reactivate to cause recurrent lesions in mucosal tissues. A key determinant of virulence is the viral protein ICP34.5, of which residues 68 to 87 significantly contribute to neurovirulence through an unknown mechanism. Our report provides evidence that residues 68 to 87 of ICP34.5 are required for binding mitochondrion-associated factors. These interactions alter mitochondrial dynamics in neurons, thereby facilitating viral replication and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Manivanh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Jesse Mehrbach
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Audra J Charron
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Andrew Grassetti
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Stacey Cerón
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Sean A Taylor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Jorge Rubén Cabrera
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Scott Gerber
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - David A Leib
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
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Mancini M, Vidal SM. Insights into the pathogenesis of herpes simplex encephalitis from mouse models. Mamm Genome 2018; 29:425-445. [PMID: 30167845 PMCID: PMC6132704 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-018-9772-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
A majority of the world population is infected with herpes simplex viruses (HSV; human herpesvirus types 1 and 2). These viruses, perhaps best known for their manifestation in the genital or oral mucosa, can also cause herpes simplex encephalitis, a severe and often fatal disease of the central nervous system. Antiviral therapies for HSV are only partially effective since the virus can establish latent infections in neurons, and severe pathological sequelae in the brain are common. A better understanding of disease pathogenesis is required to develop new strategies against herpes simplex encephalitis, including the precise viral and host genetic determinants that promote virus invasion into the central nervous system and its associated immunopathology. Here we review the current understanding of herpes simplex encephalitis from the host genome perspective, which has been illuminated by groundbreaking work on rare herpes simplex encephalitis patients together with mechanistic insight from single-gene mouse models of disease. A complex picture has emerged, whereby innate type I interferon-mediated antiviral signaling is a central pathway to control viral replication, and the regulation of immunopathology and the balance between apoptosis and autophagy are critical to disease severity in the central nervous system. The lessons learned from mouse studies inform us on fundamental defense mechanisms at the interface of host–pathogen interactions within the central nervous system, as well as possible rationales for intervention against infections from severe neuropathogenic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Mancini
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,McGill Research Centre on Complex Traits, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Silvia M Vidal
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada. .,McGill Research Centre on Complex Traits, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, H3G 0B1, Canada.
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6
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Viret C, Rozières A, Faure M. Autophagy during Early Virus–Host Cell Interactions. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:1696-1713. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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7
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Lupfer C, Anand PK. Integrating Inflammasome Signaling in Sexually Transmitted Infections. Trends Immunol 2016; 37:703-714. [PMID: 27592079 PMCID: PMC5086000 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Inflammasomes are cytosolic multiprotein platforms with pivotal roles in infectious diseases. Activation of inflammasomes results in proinflammatory cytokine signaling and pyroptosis. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a major health problem worldwide, yet few studies have probed the impact of inflammasome signaling during these infections. Due to the dearth of appropriate infection models, our current understanding of inflammasomes in STIs is mostly drawn from results obtained in vitro, from distant infection sites, or from related microbial strains that are not sexually transmitted. Understanding how inflammasomes influence the outcome of STIs may lead to the development of novel and effective strategies to control disease and prevent transmission. Here we discuss and highlight the recent progress in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Lupfer
- Department of Biology, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65809, USA
| | - Paras K Anand
- Infectious Diseases and Immunity, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK.
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Hu B, Zhang Y, Jia L, Wu H, Fan C, Sun Y, Ye C, Liao M, Zhou J. Binding of the pathogen receptor HSP90AA1 to avibirnavirus VP2 induces autophagy by inactivating the AKT-MTOR pathway. Autophagy 2016; 11:503-15. [PMID: 25714412 PMCID: PMC4502722 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2015.1017184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an essential component of host innate and adaptive immunity. Viruses have developed diverse strategies for evading or utilizing autophagy for survival. The response of the autophagy pathways to virus invasion is poorly documented. Here, we report on the induction of autophagy initiated by the pathogen receptor HSP90AA1 (heat shock protein 90 kDa α [cytosolic], class A member 1) via the AKT-MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin)-dependent pathway. Transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscopy revealed that intracellular autolysosomes packaged avibirnavirus particles. Autophagy detection showed that early avibirnavirus infection not only increased the amount of light chain 3 (LC3)-II, but also upregulated AKT-MTOR dephosphorylation. HSP90AA1-AKT-MTOR knockdown by RNA interference resulted in inhibition of autophagy during avibirnavirus infection. Virus titer assays further verified that autophagy inhibition, but not induction, enhanced avibirnavirus replication. Subsequently, we found that HSP90AA1 binding to the viral protein VP2 resulted in induction of autophagy and AKT-MTOR pathway inactivation. Collectively, our findings suggest that the cell surface protein HSP90AA1, an avibirnavirus-binding receptor, induces autophagy through the HSP90AA1-AKT-MTOR pathway in early infection. We reveal that upon viral recognition, a direct connection between HSP90AA1 and the AKT-MTOR pathway trigger autophagy, a critical step for controlling infection.
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Key Words
- AKT-MTOR pathway
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- ATG5, autophagy-related 5
- BCA, bicinchoninic acid
- BECN1, Beclin 1, autophagy-related
- CoIP, coimmunoprecipitation
- DMEM, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium
- EBSS, Earle's balanced salt solution
- EIF2AK2, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2
- EIF2S1, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2, subunit 1 alpha
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- GOPC, golgi-associated PDZ and coiled-coil motif containing
- GST, glutathione S-transferase
- Gg, Gallus gallus (chicken)
- HE-IBDV, heat-inactivated IBDV
- HSP90AA1
- HSP90AA1, heat shock protein 90 kDa alpha (cytosolic), class A member 1
- HSV-1, herpes simplex virus 1
- Hs, Homo sapiens (human)
- IBDV, infectious bursal disease virus
- IgG, immunoglobulin G
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- MAP1LC3/LC3, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3
- MOI, multiplicity of infection
- MTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin (serine/threonine kinase)
- Ni-NTA, nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid
- PAMP, pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase
- PRR, pattern recognition receptors
- RNAi, RNA interference
- SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate
- SQSTM1, sequestosome 1
- SVP, subviral particle
- TCID50, 50% tissue culture infectious doses
- TLR, toll-like receptors
- TSC, tuberous sclerosis complex
- VP, viral protein
- autophagy
- avibirnavirus
- cDNA, complementary DNA
- dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
- eGFP, enhanced green fluorescent protein
- hpi, hours post-infection
- mAb, monoclonal antibody
- shRNA, short hairpin RNA
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
- viral protein VP2
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Affiliation(s)
- Boli Hu
- a Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture ; Zhejiang University ; Hangzhou , China
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9
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Lupfer C, Malik A, Kanneganti TD. Inflammasome control of viral infection. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 12:38-46. [PMID: 25771504 PMCID: PMC4470791 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The inflammasome is a caspase-1 containing complex that activates the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 and results in the proinflammatory cell death known as pyroptosis. Numerous recent publications have highlighted the importance of inflammasome activation in the control of virus infection. Inflammasome activation during viral infection is dependent on a variety of upstream receptors including the NOD-like receptor, RIG-I-like receptor and AIM2-like receptor families. Various receptors also function in inflammasome activation in different cellular compartments, including the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The effectiveness of inflammasomes at suppressing virus replication is highlighted by the prevalence and diversity of virus encoded inflammasome inhibitors. Also, the host has a myriad of regulatory mechanisms in place to prevent unwanted inflammasome activation and overt inflammation. Finally, recent reports begin to suggest that inflammasome activation and inflammasome modulation may have important clinical applications. Herein, we highlight recent advances and discuss potential future directions toward understanding the role of inflammasomes during virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Lupfer
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, United States
| | - Ankit Malik
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, United States
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Mattila RK, Harila K, Kangas SM, Paavilainen H, Heape AM, Mohr IJ, Hukkanen V. An investigation of herpes simplex virus type 1 latency in a novel mouse dorsal root ganglion model suggests a role for ICP34.5 in reactivation. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:2304-2313. [PMID: 25854552 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
After a primary lytic infection at the epithelia, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) enters the innervating sensory neurons and translocates to the nucleus, where it establishes a quiescent latent infection. Periodically, the virus can reactivate and the progeny viruses spread back to the epithelium. Here, we introduce an embryonic mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) culture system, which can be used to study the mechanisms that control the establishment, maintenance and reactivation from latency. Use of acyclovir is not necessary in our model. We examined different phases of the HSV-1 life cycle in DRG neurons, and showed that WT HSV-1 could establish both lytic and latent form of infection in the cells. After reactivating stimulus, the WT viruses showed all markers of true reactivation. In addition, we showed that deletion of the γ(1)34.5 gene rendered the virus incapable of reactivation, even though the virus was clearly able to replicate and persist in a quiescent form in the DRG neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Mattila
- Research Center for Biomedicine, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - K Harila
- Research Center for Biomedicine, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - S M Kangas
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - H Paavilainen
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Drug Research Doctoral Programme, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - A M Heape
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - I J Mohr
- Department of Microbiology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - V Hukkanen
- Department of Virology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Interleukin-1α released from HSV-1-infected keratinocytes acts as a functional alarmin in the skin. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5230. [PMID: 25323745 PMCID: PMC4237007 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is a human pathogen that utilizes several strategies to circumvent the host immune response. An immune evasion mechanism employed by HSV-1 is retention of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the intracellular space, which blocks the pro-inflammatory activity of IL-1β. Here, we report that HSV-1 infected keratinocytes actively release the also pro-inflammatory IL-1α, preserving the ability of infected cells to signal danger to the surrounding tissue. The extracellular release of IL-1α is independent of inflammatory caspases. In vivo recruitment of leukocytes to early HSV-1 micro-infection sites within the epidermis is dependent upon IL-1 signalling. Following cutaneous HSV-1 infection, mice unable to signal via extracellular IL-1α exhibit an increased mortality rate associated with viral dissemination. We conclude that IL-1α acts as an alarmin essential for leukocyte recruitment and protective immunity against HSV-1. This function may have evolved to counteract an immune evasion mechanism deployed by HSV-1.
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Frost LS, Mitchell CH, Boesze-Battaglia K. Autophagy in the eye: implications for ocular cell health. Exp Eye Res 2014; 124:56-66. [PMID: 24810222 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy, a catabolic process by which a cell "eats" itself, turning over its own cellular constituents, plays a key role in cellular homeostasis. In an effort to maintain normal cellular function, autophagy is often up-regulated in response to environmental stresses and excessive organelle damage to facilitate aggregated protein removal. In the eye, virtually all cell types from those comprising the cornea in the front of the eye to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) providing a protective barrier for the retina at the back of the eye, rely on one or more aspects of autophagy to maintain structure and/or normal physiological function. In the lens autophagy plays a critical role in lens fiber cell maturation and the formation of the organelle free zone. Numerous studies delineating the role of Atg5, Vsp34 as well as FYCO1 in maintenance of lens transparency are discussed. Corneal endothelial dystrophies are also characterized as having elevated levels of autophagic proteins. Therefore, novel modulators of autophagy such as lithium and melatonin are proposed as new therapeutic strategies for this group of dystrophies. In addition, we summarize how corneal Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV-1) infection subverts the cornea's response to infection by inhibiting the normal autophagic response. Using glaucoma models we analyze the relative contribution of autophagy to cell death and cell survival. The cytoprotective role of autophagy is further discussed in an analysis of photoreceptor cell heath and function. We focus our analysis on the current understanding of autophagy in photoreceptor and RPE health, specifically on the diverse role of autophagy in rods and cones as well as its protective role in light induced degeneration. Lastly, in the RPE we highlight hybrid phagocytosis-autophagy pathways. This comprehensive review allows us to speculate on how alterations in various stages of autophagy contribute to glaucoma and retinal degenerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura S Frost
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Pennsylvania, SDM, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Claire H Mitchell
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Pennsylvania, SDM, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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