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Radzikowska U, Rinaldi AO, Çelebi Sözener Z, Karaguzel D, Wojcik M, Cypryk K, Akdis M, Akdis CA, Sokolowska M. The Influence of Dietary Fatty Acids on Immune Responses. Nutrients 2019; 11:E2990. [PMID: 31817726 PMCID: PMC6950146 DOI: 10.3390/nu11122990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diet-derived fatty acids (FAs) are essential sources of energy and fundamental structural components of cells. They also play important roles in the modulation of immune responses in health and disease. Saturated and unsaturated FAs influence the effector and regulatory functions of innate and adaptive immune cells by changing membrane composition and fluidity and by acting through specific receptors. Impaired balance of saturated/unsaturated FAs, as well as n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated FAs has significant consequences on immune system homeostasis, contributing to the development of many allergic, autoimmune, and metabolic diseases. In this paper, we discuss up-to-date knowledge and the clinical relevance of the influence of dietary FAs on the biology, homeostasis, and functions of epithelial cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, innate lymphoid cells, T cells and B cells. Additionally, we review the effects of dietary FAs on the pathogenesis of many diseases, including asthma, allergic rhinitis, food allergy, atopic dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis as well as type 1 and 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula Radzikowska
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Arturo O Rinaldi
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
| | - Zeynep Çelebi Sözener
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Department of Chest Disease, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Ankara University School of Medicine, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Dilara Karaguzel
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Marzena Wojcik
- Department of Structural Biology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Cypryk
- Department of Internal Medicine and Diabetology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-549 Lodz, Poland
| | - Mübeccel Akdis
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
| | - Cezmi A Akdis
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
| | - Milena Sokolowska
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research (SIAF), University of Zurich, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
- Christine Kühne-Center for Allergy Research and Education, 7265 Davos Wolfgang, Switzerland
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Gutiérrez S, Svahn SL, Johansson ME. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Immune Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20205028. [PMID: 31614433 PMCID: PMC6834330 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20205028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations on the immune system caused by omega-3 fatty acids have been described for 30 years. This family of polyunsaturated fatty acids exerts major alterations on the activation of cells from both the innate and the adaptive immune system, although the mechanisms for such regulation are diverse. First, as a constitutive part of the cellular membrane, omega-3 fatty acids can regulate cellular membrane properties, such as membrane fluidity or complex assembly in lipid rafts. In recent years, however, a new role for omega-3 fatty acids and their derivatives as signaling molecules has emerged. In this review, we describe the latest findings describing the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on different cells from the immune system and their possible molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saray Gutiérrez
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Sara L Svahn
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Maria E Johansson
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Djuric Z, Bassis CM, Plegue MA, Sen A, Turgeon DK, Herman K, Young VB, Brenner DE, Ruffin MT. Increases in Colonic Bacterial Diversity after ω-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Predict Decreased Colonic Prostaglandin E2 Concentrations in Healthy Adults. J Nutr 2019; 149:1170-1179. [PMID: 31051496 PMCID: PMC6602899 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxy255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The intestinal microbiome is an important determinant of inflammatory balance in the colon that may affect response to dietary agents. OBJECTIVE This is a secondary analysis of a clinical trial, the Fish Oil Study, to determine whether interindividual differences in colonic bacteria are associated with variability in the reduction of colonic prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) concentrations after personalized supplementation with ω-3 (n-3) fatty acids. METHODS Forty-seven healthy adults (17 men, 30 women, ages 26-75 y) provided biopsy samples of colonic mucosa and luminal stool brushings before and after personalized ω-3 fatty acid supplementation that was based on blood fatty acid responses. Samples were analyzed using 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing. The data analyses focused on changes in bacterial community diversity. Linear regression was used to evaluate factors that predict a reduction in colonic PGE2. RESULTS At baseline, increased bacterial diversity, as measured by the Shannon and Inverse Simpson indexes in both biopsy and luminal brushing samples, was positively correlated with dietary fiber intakes and negatively correlated with fat intakes. Dietary supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids increased the Yue and Clayton community dis-similarity index between the microbiome in luminal brushings and colon biopsy samples post-supplementation (P = 0.015). In addition, there was a small group of individuals with relatively high Prevotella abundance who were resistant to the anti-inflammatory effects of ω-3 fatty acid supplementation. In linear regression analyses, increases in diversity of the bacteria in the luminal brushing samples, but not in the biopsy samples, were significant predictors of lower colonic PGE2 concentrations post-supplementation in models that included baseline PGE2, baseline body mass index, and changes in colonic eicosapentaenoic acid-to-arachidonic acid ratios. The changes in bacterial diversity contributed to 6-8% of the interindividual variance in change in colonic PGE2 (P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Dietary supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids had little effect on intestinal bacteria in healthy humans; however, an increase in diversity in the luminal brushings significantly predicted reductions in colonic PGE2. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01860352.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zora Djuric
- Departments of Family Medicine
- Nutritional Sciences
| | | | | | - Ananda Sen
- Departments of Family Medicine
- Biostatistics
| | | | | | | | - Dean E Brenner
- Internal Medicine
- Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Mack T Ruffin
- Family and Community Medicine, Penn State Health, Milton S Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, PA
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Wilson MJ, Sen A, Bridges D, Turgeon DK, Brenner DE, Smith WL, Ruffin MT, Djuric Z. Higher baseline expression of the PTGS2 gene and greater decreases in total colonic fatty acid content predict greater decreases in colonic prostaglandin-E 2 concentrations after dietary supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2018; 139:14-19. [PMID: 30471768 PMCID: PMC6343141 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated whether mRNA expression of major genes regulating formation of prostaglandin (PG)E2 in the colon and colonic fatty acid concentrations are associated with the reduction in colonic mucosal PGE2 after dietary supplementation with omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids. Supplementation with ω-3 fatty acids was done for 12 weeks using personalized dosing that was expected to reduce colonic PGE2 by 50%. In stepwise linear regression models, the ω-3 fatty acid dose and baseline BMI explained 16.1% of the inter-individual variability in the fold change of colonic PGE2 post-supplementation. Increases in mRNA gene expression after supplementation were, however, modest and were not associated with changes in PGE2. When baseline expression of PTGS1, PTGS2 and HPGD genes was included in the linear regression model containing dose and BMI, only PTGS2, the gene coding for the inducible form cyclooxygenase, was a significant predictor. Higher relative expression of PTGS2 predicted greater decreases in colonic PGE2, accounting for an additional 13.6% of the inter-individual variance. In the final step of the regression model, greater decreases in total colonic fatty acid concentrations predicted greater decreases in colonic PGE2, contributing to an additional 18.7% of the variance. Overall, baseline BMI, baseline expression of PTGS2 and changes in colonic total fatty acids together accounted for 48% of the inter-individual variability in the change in colonic PGE2. This is consistent with biochemical data showing that fatty acids which are not substrates for cyclooxygenases can activate cyclooxygenase-2 allosterically. Further clinical trials are needed to elucidate the factors that regulate the fatty acid milieu of the human colon and how this interacts with key lipid metabolizing enzymes. Given the central role of PGE2 in colon carcinogenesis, these pathways may also impact on colon cancer prevention by other dietary and pharmacological approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Wilson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Ananda Sen
- Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Dave Bridges
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - D Kim Turgeon
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Dean E Brenner
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - William L Smith
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Mack T Ruffin
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Penn State University, Hershey, PA
| | - Zora Djuric
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
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Shih JM, Shih YM, Hou YC, Pai MH, Yeh CL, Yeh SL. Effects of fish oil-based lipid emulsion on inflammation and kidney injury in mice subjected to unilateral hind limb ischemia/reperfusion. Cytokine 2018; 111:49-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Ma Y, Zhou G, Li Y, Zhu Y, Yu X, Zhao F, Li H, Xu X, Li C. Intake of Fish Oil Specifically Modulates Colonic Muc2 Expression in Middle-Aged Rats by Suppressing the Glycosylation Process. Mol Nutr Food Res 2018; 62:1700661. [PMID: 29277971 PMCID: PMC6120138 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201700661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Dietary fats have been shown to affect gut microbiota composition and aging gene expression of middle-aged rats at a normal dose, but little is known about such an effect on gut barrier. In this study, the changes in colonic Muc2 expression are investigated and the underlying mechanism is also proposed. METHODS AND RESULTS 36 middle-aged Sprague-Dawley rats are assigned to one of the diets containing soybean oil, lard, or fish oil (4%). The rats are fed for 5 weeks and then goblet cells, Muc2 expression, and inflammatory cytokines in the colon are measured. Proteome analysis is performed. Compared with the lard and soybean oil diet groups, intake of fish oil decreases the number of goblet cells, and inhibits Muc2 and TLRs expression in the colon of middle-aged rats, which would impair mucus barrier. Several key enzymes involved in glycosylation process, including Agr2, Gale, Gne, Pmm2, Pdxdc1, Plch1, Pfkp, Cmpk1, and Rexo2, show the lowest abundance in the fish oil diet group. CONCLUSION Intake of fish oil at a normal dose downregulates colonic Muc2 expression. This negative effect of fish oil may involve the suppression of mucin glycosylation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafang Ma
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Guanghong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Yingqiu Li
- Guangxi Vocational College of Technology and BusinessNanningGuangxiP.R. China
| | - Yingying Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Xiaobo Yu
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Fan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - He Li
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Xinglian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Chunbao Li
- Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOEKey Laboratory of Meat Processing, MOAJiangsu Synergetic Innovation Center of Meat Processing and Quality ControlNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
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Fuentes NR, Salinas ML, Kim E, Chapkin RS. Emerging role of chemoprotective agents in the dynamic shaping of plasma membrane organization. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2017; 1859:1668-1678. [PMID: 28342710 PMCID: PMC5501766 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2017.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the context of an organism, epithelial cells by nature are designed to be the defining barrier between self and the outside world. This is especially true for the epithelial cells that form the lining of the digestive tract, which absorb nutrients and serve as a barrier against harmful substances. These cells are constantly bathed by a complex mixture of endogenous (bile acids, mucus, microbial metabolites) and exogenous (food, nutrients, drugs) bioactive compounds. From a cell biology perspective, this type of exposure would directly impact the plasma membrane, which consists of a myriad of complex lipids and proteins. The plasma membrane not only functions as a barrier but also as the medium in which cellular signaling complexes form and function. This property is mediated by the organization of the plasma membrane, which is exquisitely temporally (nanoseconds to minutes) and spatially (nanometers to micrometers) regulated. Since numerous bioactive compounds found in the intestinal lumen can directly interact with lipid membranes, we hypothesize that the dynamic reshaping of plasma membrane organization underlies the chemoprotective effect of select membrane targeted dietary bioactives (MTDBs). This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Lipid Therapy: Drugs Targeting Biomembranes edited by Pablo V. Escribá.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natividad R Fuentes
- Program in Integrative Nutrition & Complex Diseases, Texas A&M University, USA; Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, USA
| | - Michael L Salinas
- Program in Integrative Nutrition & Complex Diseases, Texas A&M University, USA; Department of Nutrition & Food Science, Texas A&M University, USA
| | - Eunjoo Kim
- Program in Integrative Nutrition & Complex Diseases, Texas A&M University, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, USA
| | - Robert S Chapkin
- Program in Integrative Nutrition & Complex Diseases, Texas A&M University, USA; Faculty of Toxicology, Texas A&M University, USA; Department of Nutrition & Food Science, Texas A&M University, USA; Center for Translational Environmental Health Research, Texas A&M University, USA.
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Shaikh SR, Fessler MB, Gowdy KM. Role for phospholipid acyl chains and cholesterol in pulmonary infections and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:985-997. [PMID: 27286794 PMCID: PMC5069085 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4vmr0316-103r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Review on how complex mixtures of bioactive lipids and cholesterol may influence the pulmonary immune response during infection. Bacterial and viral respiratory tract infections result in millions of deaths worldwide and are currently the leading cause of death from infection. Acute inflammation is an essential element of host defense against infection, but can be damaging to the host when left unchecked. Effective host defense requires multiple lipid mediators, which collectively have proinflammatory and/or proresolving effects on the lung. During pulmonary infections, phospholipid acyl chains and cholesterol can be chemically and enzymatically oxidized, as well as truncated and modified, producing complex mixtures of bioactive lipids. We review recent evidence that phospholipids and cholesterol and their derivatives regulate pulmonary innate and adaptive immunity during infection. We first highlight data that oxidized phospholipids generated in the lung during infection stimulate pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs and scavenger receptors, thereby amplifying the pulmonary inflammatory response. Next, we discuss evidence that oxidation of endogenous pools of cholesterol during pulmonary infections produces oxysterols that also modify the function of both innate and adaptive immune cells. Last, we conclude with data that n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, both in the form of phospholipid acyl chains and through enzymatic processing into endogenous proresolving lipid mediators, aid in the resolution of lung inflammation through distinct mechanisms. Unraveling the complex mechanisms of induction and function of distinct classes of bioactive lipids, both native and modified, may hold promise for developing new therapeutic strategies for improving pulmonary outcomes in response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saame Raza Shaikh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, East Carolina Heart Institute, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University (ECU), Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael B Fessler
- Immunity, Inflammation and Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health (NIEHS/NIH), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kymberly M Gowdy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA;
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Teague H, Harris M, Whelan J, Comstock SS, Fenton JI, Shaikh SR. Short-term consumption of n-3 PUFAs increases murine IL-5 levels, but IL-5 is not the mechanistic link between n-3 fatty acids and changes in B-cell populations. J Nutr Biochem 2015; 28:30-6. [PMID: 26878780 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) exert immunomodulatory effects on B cells. We previously demonstrated that n-3 PUFAs enhanced the relative percentage and/or frequency of select B2 cell subsets. The objectives here were to determine if n-3 PUFAs (a) could boost cytokines that target B-cell frequency, (b) enhance the frequency of the B1 population and (c) to identify the mechanism by which n-3 PUFAs modify the proportion of B cells. Administration of n-3 PUFAs as fish oil to C57BL/6 mice enhanced secretion of the Th2 cytokine IL-5 but not IL-9 or IL-13. N-3 PUFAs had no influence on the percentage or frequency of peritoneal B1 or B2 cells. Subsequent experiments with IL-5(-/-) knockout mice showed n-3 PUFAs decreased the percentage of bone marrow B220(lo)IgM(hi) cells and increased the proportion and number of splenic IgM(+)IgD(lo)CD21(lo) cells compared to the control. These results, when compared with our previous findings with wild-type mice, suggested IL-5 had no role in mediating the effect of n-3 PUFAs on B-cell populations. To confirm this conclusion, we assayed IL-5 secretion in a diet-induced obesity model in which n-3 PUFAs enhanced the frequency of select B-cell subsets. N-3 PUFA supplementation as ethyl esters to obesogenic diets did not alter circulating IL-5 levels. Altogether, the data establish that n-3 PUFAs as fish oil can increase circulating IL-5 in lean mice, which has implications for several disease end points, but this increase in IL-5 is not the mechanistic link between n-3 PUFAs and changes in B-cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Teague
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, East Carolina University; East Carolina Diabetes & Obesity Institute, East Carolina University
| | - Mitchel Harris
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, East Carolina University; East Carolina Diabetes & Obesity Institute, East Carolina University
| | - Jarrett Whelan
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, East Carolina University; East Carolina Diabetes & Obesity Institute, East Carolina University
| | - Sarah S Comstock
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Jenifer I Fenton
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
| | - Saame Raza Shaikh
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, East Carolina University; East Carolina Diabetes & Obesity Institute, East Carolina University; Department of Microbiology & Immunology, East Carolina University.
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