Protective role of n6/n3 PUFA supplementation with varying DHA/EPA ratios against atherosclerosis in mice

Mechanism of enhanced microalgal biomass and lipid accumulation through symbiosis between a highly succinic acid-producing strain of Escherichia coli SUC and Aurantiochytrium sp. SW1

Microalgae, known for rapid growth and lipid richness, hold potential in biofuels and high-value biomolecules. The symbiotic link with bacteria is crucial in large-scale open cultures. This study explores algal-bacterial interactions using a symbiotic model, evaluating acid-resistant Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), stress-resilient Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis, and various Escherichia coli strains in the Aurantiochytrium sp. SW1 system. It was observed that E. coli SUC significantly enhanced the growth and lipid production of Aurantiochytrium sp. SW1 by increasing enzyme activity (NAD-IDH, NAD-ME, G6PDH) while maintaining sustained succinic acid release. Optimal co-culture conditions included temperature 28 °C, a 1:10 algae-to-bacteria ratio, and pH 8. Under these conditions, Aurantiochytrium sp. SW1 biomass increased 3.17-fold to 27.83 g/L, and total lipid content increased 2.63-fold to 4.87 g/L. These findings have implications for more efficient microalgal lipid production and large-scale cultivation.

A metabolomics discrimination-based strategy for screening the antithrombin active markers of perilla seeds: A natural oil crop

Natural crops oil with high nutritional value has gradually attracted attention. Perilla seeds are regarded as a source of functional edible oil in America, Asia and European countries due to its abundant nutrients. In this research, samples were extracted by different polarity solvents and evaluated their thrombin inhibition activities in vitro. Metabolomics combined with chemometrics revealed the antithrombin active markers of perilla seeds. The enzyme kinetics and molecular docking results were useful in clarifying their inhibition of thrombin. The orthogonal experimental design was applied to optimize the extraction process of six antithrombin active markers from perilla seeds. The results showed that rosmarinic acid, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, and oleic acid were screened out as functional and active markers. Besides, perilla seeds as a natural oil crop had the potential of antithrombin. It can also be applied in the food field because of its nutraceutical functions. Metabolomics combined with chemometrics will facilitate the discovery of functional, active markers in perilla seeds, which is conducive to accurate quality control.

Immunomodulatory effect of marine lipids on food allergy

Seafood is highly enriched in n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFAs), particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), in contrast to the ultra-processed foods included in the modern Western diet that have high levels of n-6 linoleic acid (LA, 18:2 n-6), precursor for the pro-inflammatory n-6 arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4 n-6). The capacity of marine lipids to reduce plasmatic triglycerides and blood pressure have been well-described. Moreover, recent studies have also raised evidence of a potential regulatory action of marine lipids on inflammation, the immune system, and food allergy (FA). FA is considered one of the main concerns to become life threatening in food safety. The prevalence of this emerging global problem has been increasing during the last two decades, especially in industrialized countries. About a 6-8% of young children and 2-4% of adults is estimated to be affected by FA. The main objective of the current study is to update the existing knowledge, but also the limitations, on the potential impact of marine lipids and their lipid mediators in regulating immunity, inflammation, and ultimately, food allergies. In particular, the focus is on the effect of marine lipids in modulating the key factors that control the sensitization and effector phases of FA, including gut microbiota (GM), inflammation, and immune system response. Results in animal models highlight the positive effect that consuming marine lipids, whether as a supplement or through seafood consumption, may have a relevant role in improving gut dysbiosis and inflammation, and preventing or reducing the severity of FA. However, more systematic studies in humans are needed to optimize such beneficial actions to each particular FA, age, and medical condition to reach an effective clinical application of marine lipids to improve FAs and their outcomes.

Effects of regulated deficit irrigation and foliar kaolin application on quality parameters of almond [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb]

BACKGROUND

Water stress during the growing season of the almond tree is the factor that most limits its yield. Different strategies have been studied in recent years to reduce its negative effects, such as deficit irrigation and the application of reflective spray compounds. A 3-year experiment (2019-2021) was set in a factorial design in which the effect of regulated deficit irrigation and foliar kaolin spray was evaluated on morphological characteristics (weight, length, width, and thickness of the nut and kernel, shell thickness, kernel yield, double kernels, and damaged kernels), color properties, nutritional value (carbohydrates, fat, proteins and ash) and chemical parameters (free sugars and fatty acids profiles).

RESULTS

In general, the significant differences between the treatments did not have a similar trend in the 3 years of the study. Regulated deficit irrigation and kaolin had no detrimental impact on almond morphological and color characteristics. The almond free sugars concentration was relatively stable under deficit irrigation and kaolin application. On the other hand, kaolin application positively affected the synthesis of linoleic acid.

CONCLUSION

Reducing the amount of irrigation water applied to almonds contributes to the sustainability of production without negatively affecting quality and even improving some quality parameters. In general, the foliar application of kaolin did not show significant differences in the evaluated morphological parameters. However, in terms of chemical composition, kaolin led to an increase in the concentration of linoleic acid and sucrose. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Injectable liposomal docosahexaenoic acid alleviates atherosclerosis progression and enhances plaque stability

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory vascular disease that is characterized by the accumulation of lipids and immune cells in plaques built up inside artery walls. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), which exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, has long been purported to be of therapeutic benefit to atherosclerosis patients. However, large clinical trials have yielded inconsistent data, likely due to variations in the formulation, dosage, and bioavailability of DHA following oral intake. To fully exploit its potential therapeutic effects, we have developed an injectable liposomal DHA formulation intended for intravenous administration as a plaque-targeted nanomedicine. The liposomal formulation protects DHA against chemical degradation and increases its local concentration within atherosclerotic lesions. Mechanistically, DHA liposomes are readily phagocytosed by activated macrophages, exert potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and inhibit foam cell formation. Upon intravenous administration, DHA liposomes accumulate preferentially in atherosclerotic lesional macrophages and promote polarization of macrophages towards an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, resulting in attenuation of atherosclerosis progression in both ApoE-/- and Ldlr-/- experimental models. Plaque composition analysis demonstrates that liposomal DHA inhibits macrophage infiltration, reduces lipid deposition, and increases collagen content, thus improving the stability of atherosclerotic plaques against rupture. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) further reveals that DHA liposomes can partly restore the complex lipid profile of the plaques to that of early-stage plaques. In conclusion, DHA liposomes offer a promising approach for applying DHA to stabilize atherosclerotic plaques and attenuate atherosclerosis progression, thereby preventing atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular events.

The balanced unsaturated fatty acid supplement constituted by woody edible oils improved lipid metabolism and gut microbiota in high-fat diet mice

The dietary intervention has demonstrated effectiveness in improving hyperlipidemia and obesity. Woody edible oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) that could positively affect lipid metabolism. In this study, the blended oil (BLO), a balanced UFA supplement, constituted by Zanthoxylum bungeanum (Chinese Red Pepper) seed oil, walnut (Juglans regia) oil, camellia (Camema oleifera) seed oil and perilla (Perilla frutescens) seed oil was established referring to the Chinese dietary reference intakes, in which the ratios of monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids and ω-6/ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were 1:1 and 4:1, respectively. The BLO was administrated to KM mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) by gavage every day at a dose of 3.0 mL/kg·bw for 10 weeks to assess its effects on serum lipid levels, liver antioxidant activities and gut microbial composition. The results showed that the BLO improved hepatic steatosis, liver oxidative stress, and serum lipid levels. Additionally, there was an increased abundance of Lactobacillus, Allobaculum, and Blautia, along with a decreased abundance of Staphylococcus in cecal contents. These changes were found to be positively correlated with the metabolic improvements, as indicated by Spearman's correlation analysis. These findings implied the practicality of the balanced unsaturated fatty acid consumption in preventing hyperlipidemia and obesity.

Physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of "Sui Wu'u" traditional pork products from Bajawa, West Flores, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Sui Wu'u is a traditional meat preservation product from Bajawa, a region in East Nusa Tenggara. It is made by mixing pork with salt and corn flour, which is then stored in a bamboo container (tuku) for months. After 6 months of storage, this study examined the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u.

Materials and Methods

Sui Wu'u products were prepared using the traditional recipe from the Bajawa community. Fresh pork (pork belly and backfat), corn flour, and salt were purchased from local/traditional markets at proportions of 65%, 30%, and 5%, respectively. The physicochemical, amino acid, fatty acid profile, microbiological, and sensory properties of Sui Wu'u were evaluated after being stored for 6 months in a bamboo container (tuku).

Results

The results indicated that these Sui Wu'u were mainly characterized by high-fat levels, followed by protein. The pH value, salt content, moisture content, and water activity were 4.72%, 1.72%, 6.11%, and 0.62%, respectively. Minerals (K, P, Se, and Zn) and vitamin B6, as well as amino acids, such as leucine, phenylalanine, lysine (essential amino acids), glycine, proline, glutamic acid, and alanine (non-essential amino acids), are present in Sui Wu'u. The fatty acid profile was dominated by monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (21.69%), saturated fatty acids (SFA) (17.78%), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (5.36%). Monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (C18:1n9) was the most abundant fatty acid in Sui Wu'u, followed by palmitic acid SFA (C16:0); MUFA stearic acid (C18:0); and PUFA linoleic (C18:2n-6). The microbiological characteristics of Sui Wu'u showed no detectable microorganisms (<10 CFU/g) for Salmonella, total E. coli and total Staphylococcus, and average values of 4.4 × 105 CFU/g for total microbes, which were still below the maximum limit of microbial contamination according to the regulations of the Food and Drug Supervisory Agency of the Republic of Indonesia. The sensory assessment indicated that panelists highly preferred (rated as very like) Sui Wu'u for all sensory attributes.

Conclusion

The physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of Sui Wu'u after 6 months of storage indicated that it still provides essential nutrients for the body and is quite safe for consumption. The stability of Sui Wu'u's shelf life can be attributed to the appropriate combination of pork, salt, corn flour, bamboo packaging (tuku), and storage temperature. The high-fat content in Sui Wu'u can be reduced by increasing the proportion of lean meat. Ensuring strict sanitation during the manufacturing process, using high-quality pork, salt, corn flour, and proper packaging with bamboo can further improve the safety of Sui Wu'u for consumption.

A comprehensive review of the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control of Perillae Fructus

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Perilla frutescens (Linnaeus) Britton, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 5: 277. 1894., is famous as a worldwide plant with multiple medical parts, including leaves, stems, fruits, etc. Perillae Fructus, the desiccative ripe fruit of P. frutescens, is locally called Zisuzi in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. It is a popularly used herb for relieving cough and asthma, dissipating phlegm and treating constipation in some Asian countries, such as China, Japan, India, South Korea, etc. Various chemical compounds were isolated and identified from Perillae Fructus.

THE AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to summarize the botany, ethnopharmacological applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control of Perillae Fructus to provide scientific evidence for development and utilization Perillae Fructus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant information about Perillae Fructus was collected from ScienceDirect, PubMed, Web of science, CNKI, WanFang data, ancient classics and clinical reports. Some electronic databases were also retrieved.

RESULTS

Perillae Fructus was exerted to treat cough and asthma in traditional application. It also had the effect on moistening intestine to relieve constipation for tremendous lipid substances. Up to now, 193 compounds have been isolated and identified from Perillae Fructus, mainly including fatty acids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phytosterols, triterpenoids and volatile oils. As for its pharmacological activities, prevalent traditional applications of Perillae Fructus have been supported by modern pharmacological experiments in vivo or in vitro, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. Besides, Perillae Fructus also has hypolipidemic, anti-tumor, antibacterial effects, etc. This review will provide a scientific basis for further studies and rational applications of Perillae Fructus in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

According to its traditional applications, phytochemicals and pharmacological activities, Perillae Fructus was regarded as a valuable herb for application in medicine and food fields. Although some ingredients have been confirmed to have multiple pharmacological activities, their mechanisms of action are still unclear. Further studies on the material basis and mechanism of action are clearly warranted.

Untargeted Metabolomics Based Prediction of Therapeutic Potential for Apigenin and Chrysin

The prominent flavonoids apigenin and chrysin have been demonstrated to have systemic benefits. Our previous work was first to establish the impact of apigenin and chrysin on cellular transcriptome. In the current study, we have revealed the ability of apigenin and chrysin to alter the cellular metabolome based on our untargeted metabolomics. Based on our metabolomics data, both these structurally related flavonoids demonstrate diverging and converging properties. Apigenin demonstrated the potential to possess anti-inflammatory and vasorelaxant properties through the upregulation of intermediate metabolites of alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid pathways. Chrysin, on the other hand, exhibited abilities to inhibit protein and pyrimidine synthesis along with downregulation of gluconeogenesis pathways based on the altered metabolites detected. Chrysin-mediated metabolite changes are mostly due to its ability to modulate L-alanine metabolism and the urea cycle. On the other hand, both the flavonoids also demonstrated converging properties. Apigenin and chrysin were able to downregulate metabolites involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and uric acid synthesis, namely 7-dehydrocholesterol and xanthosine, respectively. This work will provide understanding regarding the diverse therapeutic potential of these naturally occurring flavonoids and help us in curbing an array of metabolic complications.

Discrepant modulating effects of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on cerebral lipids, fatty acid transporter expression and soluble beta-amyloid levels in ApoE-/- and C57BL/6J mice

AIMS

The study was designed to explore the role of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) deficiency concomitant with dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) treatment on brain β-amyloid (Aβ) and lipid levels.

METHOD

A 5-month dietary DHA intervention was conducted in ApoE-deficient (ApoE^-/- ) mice and wild-type C57BL/6J (C57 wt) mice. The Morris water maze test was performed to assess the behaviour of the animals. The cortical contents of soluble Aβ_1-40 and Aβ_1-42 were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Cortical fatty acid levels were detected by gas chromatography. Gene and protein expression of molecules associated with cerebral Aβ and lipid metabolism were measured using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Western blot and histological methods.

RESULTS

DHA treatment increased the content of cortical DHA and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) but decreased the ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs in ApoE^-/- mice; whereas the content of cortical DHA and n-3 PUFAs in C57 wt mice remained unchanged after DHA treatment. Cerebral Fabp5 and Cd36 gene expression were significantly downregulated in DHA-fed C57 wt mice; cerebral Cd36 and Scarb1 gene expression were significantly upregulated, whereas Fabp5 gene expression was downregulated in DHA-fed ApoE^-/- mice. In comparison with C57 wt mice, the content of cortical soluble Aβ_1-42 , total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) increased, whereas the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) decreased in ApoE^-/- mice. Interestingly, these differences were significantly reversed by DHA dietary treatment.

CONCLUSION

DHA intervention has discrepant impacts on cerebral lipids, fatty acid transporter expression and soluble Aβ levels in ApoE^-/- and C57 wt mice, suggesting the modifying role of ApoE status on the responses of cerebral lipids and Aβ metabolism to DHA treatment.

Dietary fatty acids affect learning and memory ability via regulating inflammatory factors in obese mice

OBJECTIVE

High-fat diets are linked to obesity, contributing to the alterations in inflammatory signaling pathways, which is associated with cognitive function. We aim to investigate the mechanisms by which various different types of dietary fatty acids affecting cognitive function in obese mice through the gut/brain axis-inflammatory signaling pathway.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eight-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were fed with basal diet (control group), lard high-fat diet (containing long-chain saturated fatty acid (LCSFA group)), coconut oil high-fat diet (containing medium-chain saturated fatty acid (MCSFA group)), linseed oil high-fat diet (containing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA group)), soybean oil high-fat diet (containing n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-6 PUFA group)), olive oil high-fat diet (containing monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA group)) and 8% hydrogenated soybean oil high-fat diet (containing trans fatty acid (TFA group)) respectively for 16 weeks. Our results revealed that the mean escape latency was significantly prolonged in LCSFA group, and the latency to cross the platform location of n-6 PUFA and TFA groups were increased significantly. The differences of inflammatory markers and toll-like receptor-myeloid differentiation factor-88-nuclear factor kappa-B (TLR-MyD88-NF-κB) inflammatory signaling pathway expressions among all groups reached statistical significances.

CONCLUSION

Compared to basal diet, high-fat diets enriched in LCSFA, MCSFA, n-6 PUFA, MUFA, and TFA might exert detrimental effects on cognitive function in obese mice via regulating the inflammatory markers and inflammatory signaling pathway in brain and intestine. High-fat diet enriched in n-3 PUFA might exhibit different effect on modulating inflammatory responses in different tissues and might benefit to cognitive function.

Effects of fatty acids on T cell function: role in atherosclerosis

T cells are among the most common cell types present in atherosclerotic plaques and are increasingly being recognized as a central mediator in atherosclerosis development and progression. At the same time, triglycerides and fatty acids have re-emerged as crucial risk factors for atherosclerosis. Triglycerides and fatty acids are important components of the milieu to which the T cell is exposed from the circulation to the plaque, and increasing evidence shows that fatty acids influence T cell function. In this Review, we discuss the effects of fatty acids on four components of the T cell response - metabolism, activation, proliferation and polarization - and the influence of these changes on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We also discuss how quiescent T cells can undergo a type of metabolic reprogramming induced by exposure to fatty acids in the circulation that influences the subsequent functions of T cells after activation, such as in atherosclerotic plaques.

Effects of a Fish Oil Rich in Docosahexaenoic Acid on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Oxidative Stress in Healthy Rats

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are associated with a lower risk of cardiometabolic diseases. However, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is easily oxidized, leading to cellular damage. The present study examined the effects of an increased concentration of DHA in fish oil (80% of total fatty acids) on cardiometabolic risk factors and oxidative stress compared to coconut oil, soybean oil, and fish oil containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA in a balanced ratio. Forty healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats were supplemented with corresponding oil for 10 weeks. Supplementation with the fish oil containing 80% DHA decreased plasma fat, plasma total cholesterol and muscle fat compared to the coconut oil and the soybean oil. Increasing concentrations of DHA induced incorporation of DHA and EPA in cell membranes and tissues along with a decrease in ω-6 arachidonic acid. The increase in DHA promoted lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation and antioxidant response. Taken together, the increased concentration of DHA in fish oil reduced fat accumulation compared to the coconut oil and the soybean oil. This benefit was accompanied by high lipid peroxidation and subsequent protein carbonylation in plasma and in liver. In our healthy framework, the slightly higher carbonylation found after receiving fish oil containing 80% DHA might be a protecting mechanism, which fit with the general improvement of antioxidant defense observed in those rats.

Dietary low ratio of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improve type 2 diabetes mellitus via activating brown adipose tissue in male mice

The ratio n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) has been caused widespread discussion. However, the best ratio and mechanism of n-6/n-3 PUFA in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are largely unknown. This study investigated the effects of different ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA diets on brown adipose tissue (BAT) and T2DM in mice. Results showed that compared with high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA (50:1) diet, lower ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA (1:1 and 5:1) diets significantly increased BAT mass by 67.55% and 60.49%, decreased the fasting blood glucose (24.87% and 20.64%), total cholesterol (32.9% and 23.84%), triglyceride (33.51% and 29.62%), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (19.23% and 17.38%), and increased glucose tolerance by 21.99% and 15.52%. Further, qRT-PCR analyses indicated that lower ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA diets activated BAT, increased the expression of Ucp1, β-3AR, PPAR-γ, cAMP, GLU1, HSL, LPL, and PGC-1α, further improved lipid and glucose metabolism in T2DM mice. In conclusion, this study substantiated that the lower ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA (1:1 and 5:1) improve symptoms associated with T2DM via activating BAT. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Dietary ratio of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is essential for the improvement of chronic diseases. Our current study showed that 1:1 or 5:1 ratio of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids had better efficiency for type 2 diabetes mellitus via activating brown adipose tissue when compared with 1:50. This finding provided useful guidance for the daily diet of patients with diabetes.

Effect of High-Dose Omega-3 Fatty Acids vs Corn Oil on Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events in Patients at High Cardiovascular Risk: The STRENGTH Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

It remains uncertain whether the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) reduce cardiovascular risk.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effects on cardiovascular outcomes of a carboxylic acid formulation of EPA and DHA (omega-3 CA) with documented favorable effects on lipid and inflammatory markers in patients with atherogenic dyslipidemia and high cardiovascular risk.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A double-blind, randomized, multicenter trial (enrollment October 30, 2014, to June 14, 2017; study termination January 8, 2020; last patient visit May 14, 2020) comparing omega-3 CA with corn oil in statin-treated participants with high cardiovascular risk, hypertriglyceridemia, and low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). A total of 13 078 patients were randomized at 675 academic and community hospitals in 22 countries in North America, Europe, South America, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

INTERVENTIONS

Participants were randomized to receive 4 g/d of omega-3 CA (n = 6539) or corn oil, which was intended to serve as an inert comparator (n = 6539), in addition to usual background therapies, including statins.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary efficacy measure was a composite of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, coronary revascularization, or unstable angina requiring hospitalization.

RESULTS

When 1384 patients had experienced a primary end point event (of a planned 1600 events), the trial was prematurely halted based on an interim analysis that indicated a low probability of clinical benefit of omega-3 CA vs the corn oil comparator. Among the 13 078 treated patients (mean [SD] age, 62.5 [9.0] years; 35% women; 70% with diabetes; median low-density lipoprotein [LDL] cholesterol level, 75.0 mg/dL; median triglycerides level, 240 mg/dL; median HDL-C level, 36 mg/dL; and median high-sensitivity C-reactive protein level, 2.1 mg/L), 12 633 (96.6%) completed the trial with ascertainment of primary end point status. The primary end point occurred in 785 patients (12.0%) treated with omega-3 CA vs 795 (12.2%) treated with corn oil (hazard ratio, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.90-1.09]; P = .84). A greater rate of gastrointestinal adverse events was observed in the omega-3 CA group (24.7%) compared with corn oil-treated patients (14.7%).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Among statin-treated patients at high cardiovascular risk, the addition of omega-3 CA, compared with corn oil, to usual background therapies resulted in no significant difference in a composite outcome of major adverse cardiovascular events. These findings do not support use of this omega-3 fatty acid formulation to reduce major adverse cardiovascular events in high-risk patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02104817.

Lipidome changes, with a focus on phospholipids, due to feeding systems and processing in goat milk

We evaluated the effects of processing - pasteurization and yoghurt manufacturing - on some health-promoting lipidome components in milk from two feeding treatments - brushland grazing or hay-feeding in confinement - in dairy goats. The contents of fat and protein were higher, and of urea, lower, in grazing goats. Fatty acid composition - at the exception of saturated fatty acids - was affected by dietary management and milk processing. Phospholipid contents was lower in confined goats, with little effect for processing. The phospholipid-to-triglyceride ratio was decreased by pasteurization. Sensitivity to pasteurization of phospholipid composition differed between feeding treatments. The percentage of sphingomyelin increased following pasteurization, with no response for fermentation to yoghurt. These results can be exploited to modulate health-promoting fats in dairy products.

Borage, camellia, centaurea and pansies: Nutritional, fatty acids, free sugars, vitamin E, carotenoids and organic acids characterization

The present study aimed to evaluate the nutritional and bioactive potential of four edible flowers (borage, centaurea, camellia, and pansies). Significant differences were observed among the four. Water was the main constituent (>76%, fresh weight - fw). Linoleic and palmitic acids were the major fatty acids found in borage and red and yellow pansies, while in camellia it was the arachidic acid. In white pansies, behenic and arachidic acids were predominant. Concerning vitamin E, α-tocopherol was the major vitamer. Carotenoids values varied between 5.8 and 181.4 mg β-carotene/100 g dry weight (dw) in centaurea and borage, respectively, being particularly rich in lutein. Malic acid was the major organic acid, except in centaurea, where succinic acid was predominant. Fructose, glucose and sucrose were detected in all flowers. These results can contribute to the knowledge of these edible flowers and consequently increase their popularity among consumers and in the food industry.

The effect of combined diet containing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and silymarin on metabolic syndrome in rats

The risk of development of metabolic syndrome can be increased by hypertriglyceridemia. A search for effective therapy is a subject of considerable attention. Therefore, our hypothesis is that the fish oil (containing polyunsaturated fatty acids; n-3 PUFA) in a combination with silymarin can more effectively protect against hypertriglyceridemia-induced metabolic disturbances. The study was conducted using a unique non-obese strain of rats with hereditary hypertriglyceridemia an accepted model of metabolic syndrome. Adult male rats were treated with n-3 PUFA (300 mg/kg/day) without or with 1 % micronized silymarin in a diet for 4 weeks. The treatment with the diet containing n-3 PUFA and silymarin significantly reduced concentrations of serum triglycerides (-45 %), total cholesterol (-18 %), non-esterified fatty acids (-33 %), and ectopic lipid accumulation in skeletal muscle (-35 %) compared to controls. In addition, an increase in Abcg5 and Abcg8 mRNA expression (as genes affecting lipid homeostasis) as well as in protein content of ABCG5 (+78 %) and ABCG8 (+232 %) transporters have been determined in the liver of treated rats. Our findings suggest that this combined diet could be used in the prevention of hypertriglyceridemia-induced metabolic disorders.

Dietary fatty acids and CD36-mediated cholesterol homeostasis: potential mechanisms

Currently, the prevention and treatment of CVD have been a global focus since CVD is the number one cause of mortality and morbidity. In the pathogenesis of CVD, it was generally thought that impaired cholesterol homeostasis might be a risk factor. Cholesterol homeostasis is affected by exogenous factors (i.e. diet) and endogenous factors (i.e. certain receptors, enzymes and transcription factors). In this context, the number of studies investigating the potential mechanisms of dietary fatty acids on cholesterol homeostasis have increased in recent years. As well, the cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) receptor is a multifunctional membrane receptor involved in fatty acid uptake, lipid metabolism, atherothrombosis and inflammation. CD36 is proposed to be a crucial molecule for cholesterol homeostasis in various mechanisms including absorption/reabsorption, synthesis, and transport of cholesterol and bile acids. Moreover, it has been reported that the amount of fatty acids and fatty acid pattern of the diet influence the CD36 level and CD36-mediated cholesterol metabolism principally in the liver, intestine and macrophages. In these processes, CD36-mediated cholesterol and lipoprotein homeostasis might be impaired by dietary SFA and trans-fatty acids, whereas ameliorated by MUFA in the diet. The effects of PUFA on CD36-mediated cholesterol homeostasis are controversial depending on the amount of n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA, and the n-3:n-6 PUFA ratio. Thus, since the CD36 receptor is suggested to be a novel nutrient-sensitive biomarker, the role of CD36 and dietary fatty acids in cholesterol metabolism might be considered in medical nutrition therapy in the near future. Therefore, the novel nutritional target of CD36 and interventions that focus on dietary fatty acids and potential mechanisms underlying cholesterol homeostasis are discussed in this review.

DHA substitution overcomes high-fat diet-induced disturbance in the circadian rhythm of lipid metabolism

Disruptions to circadian rhythm have been associated with an increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). DHA has been found to affect both circadian rhythm and lipid metabolism. In this study, the relationship between DHA substitution and improvements in lipid metabolism and circadian clock regulation was studied. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed a control, a high fat or a DHA substituted diet for 12 weeks. Biochemical analysis and H&E staining showed that the high-fat diet (HFD) could induce NAFLD, and DHA substitution (AOH) could attenuate NAFLD. The qPCR results showed that the expressions of core clock genes Clock and Bmal1 were significantly higher at zeitgeber (ZT) 0 (7:00 am) than those at ZT12 (7:00 pm) in the control group, while this difference in day and night disappeared in the HFD group, but was observed in the AOH group. Western blotting results indicated that the expressions of rhythm output molecules (RORα and REV-ERBα) and their downstream protein INSIG2 all showed the corresponding circadian changes. SREBP-regulated proteins were significantly increased in the HFD group at both ZT0 and ZT12, but decreased in the AOH group accompanied by the corresponding changes in the protein expressions of HMGCR, LXR, CYP7A1 and CYP27A1. Altogether, HFD can decrease or disrupt circadian rhythm fluctuation by up-regulating the expression of core circadian rhythm genes Clock and Bmal1 at ZT12, and induce metabolic abnormalities through the INSIG2-SREBP pathway regulated by RORα and REV-ERBα. DHA substitution seems to restore circadian rhythm similar to the normal circadian rhythm of "night-high, day-low" through the metabolic pathway regulated by rhythmic nuclear receptors, improving the lipid metabolism rhythm and reducing liver fat.

High ratio of ω-3/ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids targets mTORC1 to prevent high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome and mitochondrial dysfunction in mice

Adjusting ω-3/ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) ratio in high-fat diet is one potential mean to improve metabolic syndrome; however, underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Four groups of mice were fed 60% kcal diets with saturated fatty acids, three different ω-3/ω-6 PUFAs ratios (low, middle and high) for 12 weeks, respectively. Body weight, atherosclerosis marker, insulin signal index and level of lipid accumulation in liver were significantly lowered in High group compared with saturated fatty acids group and Low group at week 12. Expressions of p-mTOR and raptor were inhibited by high ω-3 PUFAs. Importantly, ω-3 PUFAs intake up-regulated mitochondrial electron transport chain and tricarboxylic acid cycle pathway through metabolomics analysis in liver. Mitochondrial complexes activities were raised, fumaric acid was reduced and oxidative stress was alleviated in High group. We conclude that consuming long-term high-fat diet with same calories but high ω-3/ω-6 PUFAs ratio relieves metabolic syndrome by regulating mTORC1 pathway to enhance mitochondrial function.

Eicosapentaenoic acid prevents salt sensitivity in diabetic rats and decreases oxidative stress

OBJECTIVES

Salt sensitivity (SS) is associated with increased cardiovascular risk in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2-DM) due to an increase in renal oxidation. ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have shown antioxidant effects, but a typical Western diet contains limited content. In particular, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are able to activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) to prevent diabetes mellitus-related complications by mitigating oxidative stress. Therefore, we hypothesized that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; ω-3) modulates SS in rats with T2-DM by decreasing renal oxidative stress via Nrf-2 activation and enhancing the antiinflammatory response via interleukin (IL) 6 modulation.

METHODS

Three-month-old male rats (n = 40) were fed with a Normal Na-diet (NNaD) and randomly selected into four groups: Healthy Wistar nondiabetic rats (Wi), diabetic controls (eSS), arachidonic acid-treated eSS (AA; ω-6), and EPA-treated eSS (ω-3). After 1 year, rats were placed in metabolic cages for 7 d and fed a NNaD, followed by a 7-d period with a High Na-diet (HNaD). Systolic blood pressure, body weight, serum IL-6 and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were determined at the end of each 7-d period. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), triacylglycerol, creatinine, and cholesterol levels were determined. ROS levels and Nrf-2 expression in kidney lysates were also assayed. Histologic changes were evaluated. A t test or analysis of variance was used for the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

After a HNaD, systolic blood pressure increased in both the control eSS and AA groups, but not in the EPA and Wi groups. However, HbA1c levels remained unchanged by the treatments, which suggests that the observed beneficial effect was independent of HbA1c levels. The IL-6 levels were higher in the eSS and AA groups, but remained unaltered in EPA and Wi rats after a HNaD diet. Interestingly, EPA protected against serum ROS in rats fed the HNaD, whereas AA did not. In kidney lysates, ROS decreased significantly in the EPA group compared with the eSS group, and Nrf-2 expression was consistently higher compared with the AA and eSS groups. Diabetic rats presented focal segmental sclerosis, adherence to Bowman capsule, and mild-to-moderate interstitial fibrosis. EPA and AA treatment prevented kidney damage.

CONCLUSIONS

An adequate ω3-to-ω6 ratio prevents SS in diabetic rats by a mechanism that is independent of glucose metabolism but associated with the prevention of renal oxidative stress generation. These data suggest that EPA antioxidant properties may prevent the development of hypertension or kidney damage.

Rustic Chato Murciano pig breed: Effect of the weight on carcass and meat quality

Carcass and meat quality parameters of two different weights of pigs from the rustic breed Chato Murciano (Murcia Region, south-eastern Spain) were studied: light weight (LW, 147.98 ± 3.78 kg live weight) and heavy weight (HW, 176.07 ± 4.78 kg live weight). No weight-dependent effects were observed on carcass quality (carcass yield, length, back fat thickness) or on moisture, pH, and the L* and a* coordinates. The HW group had a higher fat content and cholesterol values than the LW group. None of the fatty acids analysed in the respective meats showed differences between groups (P > .05), except C16:0, C18:2 and C18:3. The HW group had higher values for unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and the n6/n3 index than LW, and lower values for saturated fat and the Saturated/Polyunsaturated fat ratio and a lower Atherogenesis Index. In conclusion, meat and fat quality are influenced by the final live weight of Chato Murciano pigs.

Different DHA or EPA production responses to nutrient stress in the marine microalga Tisochrysis lutea and the freshwater microalga Monodus subterraneus

This study investigated the effect of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) stress on the production of DHA or EPA and total fatty acids (TFAs) in the marine microalga Tisochrysis lutea and the freshwater microalga Monodus subterraneus. Five N or P starvation/limitation conditions (N sufficient and P limited, N sufficient and P starved, N starved and P sufficient, N starved and P limited, and N and P starved) and one N and P sufficient condition (control) were studied. The results demonstrated that the proportion of DHA or EPA among TFAs and production in the microalgae suspensions decreased (57%, 73% for N stress and 18%, 51% for P stress, respectively) under N or P stress in both microalgae compared with the N and P sufficient group. Differently, DHA dry weight content of T. lutea decreased significantly, and EPA dry weight content of M. subterraneus decreased slightly under N starved conditions. Clear differences in TFA content/production and the relationship between TFA and DHA or EPA production/content and CO₂ fixation were observed between the two microalgae. These results give a new sight on the difference between marine microalgae and freshwater microalgae. Meanwhile, it gave a potential application to produce DHA or EPA and TFA combining with CO₂ fixation by these microalgae.

Anti-atherosclerotic action of GW9508 - Free fatty acid receptors activator - In apoE-knockout mice

BACKGROUND

In the past two decades, enhanced understanding of the biology of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPRs) has led to the identification of several such receptors as novel targets for free fatty acids (FFAs). Two GPRs, FFAR1 and FFAR4, have received special attention in the context of chronic inflammatory diseases, thanks to their anti-inflammatory activities.

METHODS

The present study investigates the influence of prolonged treatment with GW9508 - agonist of FFAR1 and FFAR4 - on the development of atherosclerosis plaque in apoE-knockout mice, using morphometric and molecular methods.

RESULTS

GW9508 administration has led to the reduction of atheroscletoric plaque size in an apoE-knockout mice model. Moreover, a FFAR1/FFAR4 agonist reduced the content of macrophages by almost 20%, attributed by immunohistochemical phenotyping to the pro-inflammatory M1-like activation state macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged administration of GW9508 resulted in significant amelioration of atherogenesis, providing evidence that the strategy based on macrophage phenotype switching toward an M2-like activation state via stimulation of FFAR1/FFAR4 receptors holds promise for a new approach to the prevention or treatment of atherosclerosis.

Plasma fatty acid metabolic profiling coupled with clinical research reveals the risk factors for atherosclerosis development in type 2 diabetes mellitus

Many publications have reported that the incidence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases is higher in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) than in the non-diabetic population; however, until now, the reason has been unclear. In this study, 25 males (25/64, 39.06%) and 19 females (19/54, 35.19%) had complications with atherosclerosis after two years. To reveal the risk factors for developing atherosclerosis in patients with T2DM, plasma fatty acid metabolic profiling based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was combined with the analysis of clinical biochemical indices. The results of partial least squares-discriminant and canonical correlation analyses suggested that C20:0, C22:6n-3, glycosylated hemoglobin, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio are likely to be closely related to T2DM complicated with atherosclerosis. Metabolomic information is a beneficial supplement to existing clinical indices and is useful in predicting the development of a patient's disease and optimizing the treatment.

FFAs metabolic profiling and clinical research were combined to reveal the risk factors for atherosclerosis development in T2DM patients.

Aldehydes identified in commercially available ω-3 supplements via 1 H NMR spectroscopy

OBJECTIVES

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality globally. Studies have suggested that supplementary ω-3 oils may provide cardiovascular protection, although the literature is equivocal. Recently, it has been established that many commercially available ω-3 supplements are unacceptably oxidized, leading to myriad potential health risks. One oxidation product of concern is aldehydes, which have been shown to have mutagenic, cytotoxic, and inflammatory properties that may contribute to many different disease processes, including CVD. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of aldehyde contamination in commercially available ω-3 supplements.

METHODS

We tested 12 different ω-3 oils (6 fish, 4 krill, 2 algae), using 1 H-nuclear magnetic resonance scanning. This work is of a pilot nature, as such we randomly selected and purchased 12 different oils over the counter from various local retailers according to the sales representatives' recommendations.

RESULTS

The four krill products contained aldehydes at concentrations between 5.652 (±0.496) and 6.779 (±1.817) mMol/L. Both algae samples contained aldehydes: 1.235 (±0.111) and 1.565 (±0.618) mMol/L. Two of the six fish oils contained aldehydes 1.568 (±0.291) and 4.319 (±2.361) mMol/L. There is currently no standard for aldehyde content nor for labeling of ω-3 supplements. Two-thirds (8 of 12) of the ω-3 supplements tested in this study contained aldehydes. Aldehydes have the potential to precipitate serious health problems even at very low absolute intake volumes. These findings may provide reason for sober reflection.

Dietary DHA/EPA Ratio Changes Fatty Acid Composition and Attenuates Diet-Induced Accumulation of Lipid in the Liver of ApoE-/- Mice

Diets containing various docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) ratios protect against liver damage in mice fed with a high-fat diet (HFD). However, it is unclear whether these beneficial roles of DHA and EPA are associated with alterations of fatty acid (FA) composition in the liver. This study evaluated the positive impacts of n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) containing different DHA/EPA ratios on HFD-induced liver disease and alterations of the hepatic FA composition. ApoE^-/- mice were fed with HFDs with various ratios of DHA/EPA (2 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 2) and an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4 : 1 for 12 weeks. After treatment, the serum and hepatic FA compositions, serum biochemical parameters, liver injury, and hepatic lipid metabolism-related gene expression were determined. Our results demonstrated that dietary DHA/EPA changed serum and hepatic FA composition by increasing contents of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs and decreasing amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and the n-6/n-3 ratio. Among the three DHA/EPA groups, the DHA/EPA 2 : 1 group tended to raise n-3 PUFAs concentration and lower the n-6/n-3 ratio in the liver, whereas DHA/EPA 1 : 2 tended to raise n-6 PUFAs concentration and improve the n-6/n-3 ratio. DHA/EPA supplementation reduced the hepatic impairment of lipid homeostasis, oxidative stress, and the inflammatory responses in HFD-fed mice. The DHA/EPA 2 : 1 group had lower serum levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and higher levels of adiponectin than HFD group. The DHA/EPA 1 : 2 group had elevated serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase, without significant change the expression of genes for inflammation or hepatic lipid metabolism among the three DHA/EPA groups. The results suggest that DHA/EPA-enriched diet with an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4 : 1 may reverse HFD-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease to some extent by increasing n-6 and n-3 PUFAs and decreasing the amount of MUFAs and the n-6/n-3 ratio.

Eicosapentaenoic acid and 5-HEPE enhance macrophage-mediated Treg induction in mice

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is an omega-3 fatty acid with immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Beyond its direct effects, the metabolic products of EPA also regulate various immune responses. Animal experiments demonstrated that EPA reduces adipose inflammation in high fat diet-induced obese mouse. However, the effects of EPA on infiltrated immune cell populations in adipose tissue and underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. We performed flow cytometry of stromal vascular fraction of epididymal adipose tissues from C57BL/6J and ob/ob mice fed normal chow mixed with or without 5% EPA. The numbers of hematopoietic cells, including Tregs, were higher in both C57BL/6J and ob/ob mice fed EPA diet compared with control diet. EPA enhanced the induction of Tregs in co-cultures of adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) and naïve T cells. Among EPA metabolites, 5-HEPE was the most potent inducer of Tregs. GPR119 and GPR120 are receptors for 5-HEPE and EPA, respectively, and antagonist of GPR119 blocked Treg induction by EPA in the presence of ATMs. Alox5 gene encodes 5-lipoxygenase enzyme catalyzing EPA into 5-HEPE, and inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase down-regulated EPA-mediated induction of adipose tissue Tregs in ob/ob mice. The study findings demonstrated that both EPA and 5-HEPE enhance ATM-mediated Treg induction.

Protective effects of various ratios of DHA/EPA supplementation on high-fat diet-induced liver damage in mice

Background

A sedentary lifestyle and poor diet are risk factors for the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. However, the pathogenesis of hepatic lipid accumulation is not completely understood. Therefore, the present study explored the effects of dietary supplementation of various ratios of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) on a high-fat diet-induced lipid metabolism disorder and the concurrent liver damage.

Methods

Using high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 J mice as the animal model, diets of various ratios of DHA/EPA (2:1, 1:1, and 1:2) with an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4:1 were prepared using fish and algae oils enriched in DHA and/or EPA and sunflower seed oils to a small extent instead of the high-fat diet.

Results

Significantly decreased hepatic lipid deposition, body weight, serum lipid profile, inflammatory reactions, lipid peroxidation, and expression of adipogenesis-related proteins and inflammatory factors were observed for mice that were on a diet supplemented with DHA/EPA compared to those in the high-fat control group. The DHA/EPA 1:2 group showed lower serum triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels, lower SREBP-1C, FAS, and ACC-1 relative mRNA expression, and higher Fra1 mRNA expression, with higher relative mRNA expression of enzymes such as AMPK, PPARα, and HSL observed in the DHA/EPA 1:1 group. Lower liver TC and TG levels and higher superoxide dismutase levels were found in the DHA/EPA 2:1 group. Nonetheless, no other notable effects were observed on the biomarkers mentioned above in the groups treated with DHA/EPA compared with the DHA group.

Conclusions

The results showed that supplementation with a lower DHA/EPA ratio seems to be more effective at alleviating high-fat diet-induced liver damage in mice, and a DHA/EPA ratio of 1:2 mitigated inflammatory risk factors. These effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on lipid metabolism may be linked to the upregulation of Fra1 and attenuated activity of c-Jun and c-Fos, thus ultimately reducing the severity of the lipid metabolism disorder and liver damage to some extent.

A lipidomic study on the regulation of inflammation and oxidative stress targeted by marine ω-3 PUFA and polyphenols in high-fat high-sucrose diets

The ability of polyphenols to ameliorate potential oxidative damage of ω-3 PUFAs when they are consumed together and then, to enhance their potentially individual effects on metabolic health is discussed through the modulation of fatty acids profiling and the production of lipid mediators. For that, the effects of the combined consumption of fish oils and grape seed procyanidins on the inflammatory response and redox unbalance triggered by high-fat high-sucrose (HFHS) diets were studied in an animal model of Wistar rats. A standard diet was used as control. Results suggested that fish oils produced a replacement of ω-6 by ω-3 PUFAs in membranes and tissues, and consequently they improved inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters: favored the activity of 12/15-lipoxygenases on ω-3 PUFAs, enhanced glutathione peroxidases activity, modulated proinflammatory lipid mediators synthesis through the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathways and down-regulated the synthesis de novo of ARA leaded by Δ5 desaturase. Although polyphenols exerted an antioxidative and antiinflammatory effect in the standard diet, they were less effective to reduce inflammation in the HFHS dietary model. Contrary to the effect observed in the standard diet, polyphenols up-regulated COX pathways toward ω-6 proinflammatory eicosanoids as PGE₂ and 11-HETE and decreased the detoxification of ω-3 hydroperoxides in the HFHS diet. As a result, additive effects between fish oils and polyphenols were found in the standard diet in terms of reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. However, in the HFHS diets, fish oils seem to be the one responsible for the positive effects found in the combined group.