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Zhou E, Zhou J, Bi C, Zhang Z. Cx43 Facilitates Mesenchymal Transition of Endothelial Cells Induced by Shear Stress. J Vasc Res 2023; 60:204-212. [PMID: 37673049 PMCID: PMC10614473 DOI: 10.1159/000533320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to determine the function of Cx43 in the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) process of endothelial cells (ECs) and to explore the potential signaling pathways underlying these functions. METHODS ECs were extracted from rat aorta. ECs were transfected with Cx43 cDNA and Cx43 siRNA and then exposed to 5 or 12 dyne/cm2. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect the expression of SM22α, Cx43, and acetylated α-tubulin in ECs. Western blotting was used to detect the protein expression of α-SMA, CD31, Cx43, H1-calponin, Ift88, and p-smad3 in ECs. RESULTS The expression of αSMA, SM22α, and Cx43 was significantly increased, and CD31 was markedly decreased in ECs treated with laminar shear stress at 5 dyn/cm2. The Cx43 cDNA transfection could induce the expression of SM22α or H1-calponin and attenuate CD31 expression in ECs. Also, Cx43 overexpression harms cilia formation in ECs exposed to 5 dyn/cm2, accompanied with the regulated Ift88 and smad signaling. CONCLUSIONS This study found that laminar shear stress at 5 dyn/cm2 would increase the expression of Cx43 to facilitate the EndMT process of ECs, associated with morphological changes in primary cilia and the decreased expression of Ift88 in ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- En Zhou
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Changlong Bi
- Department of Cardiology, Central Hospital of Minhang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Zongqi Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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2
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Zhang Y, Tawiah GK, Wu X, Zhang Y, Wang X, Wei X, Qiao X, Zhang Q. Primary cilium-mediated mechanotransduction in cartilage chondrocytes. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2023; 248:1279-1287. [PMID: 37897221 PMCID: PMC10625344 DOI: 10.1177/15353702231199079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most prevalent joint disorders associated with the degradation of articular cartilage and an abnormal mechanical microenvironment. Mechanical stimuli, including compression, shear stress, stretching strain, osmotic challenge, and the physical properties of the matrix microenvironment, play pivotal roles in the tissue homeostasis of articular cartilage. The primary cilium, as a mechanosensory and chemosensory organelle, is important for detecting and transmitting both mechanical and biochemical signals in chondrocytes within the matrix microenvironment. Growing evidence indicates that primary cilia are critical for chondrocytes signaling transduction and the matrix homeostasis of articular cartilage. Furthermore, the ability of primary cilium to regulate cellular signaling is dynamic and dependent on the cellular matrix microenvironment. In the current review, we aim to elucidate the key mechanisms by which primary cilia mediate chondrocytes sensing and responding to the matrix mechanical microenvironment. This might have potential therapeutic applications in injuries and OA-associated degeneration of articular cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shanxi Medical University, Jinzhong 030604, Shanxi, China
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, Shanxi, China
| | - Godfred K Tawiah
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaoan Wu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaohu Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Key Laboratory of Bone and Soft Tissue Injury Repair, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaochun Wei
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Key Laboratory of Bone and Soft Tissue Injury Repair, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaohong Qiao
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shanxi Medical University, Jinzhong 030604, Shanxi, China
- Department of Orthopaedics, Lvliang Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Lvliang 033099, Shanxi, China
| | - Quanyou Zhang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, Shanxi, China
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Key Laboratory of Bone and Soft Tissue Injury Repair, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, Shanxi, China
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3
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Sutton MM, Duffy MP, Verbruggen SW, Jacobs CR. Osteoclastogenesis Requires Primary Cilia Disassembly and Can Be Inhibited by Promoting Primary Cilia Formation Pharmacologically. Cells Tissues Organs 2023; 213:235-244. [PMID: 37231815 PMCID: PMC10863750 DOI: 10.1159/000531098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary cilium is a solitary, sensory organelle with many roles in bone development, maintenance, and function. In the osteogenic cell lineage, including skeletal stem cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes, the primary cilium plays a vital role in the regulation of bone formation, and this has made it a promising pharmaceutical target to maintain bone health. While the role of the primary cilium in the osteogenic cell lineage has been increasingly characterized, little is known about the potential impact of targeting the cilium in relation to osteoclasts, a hematopoietic cell responsible for bone resorption. The objective of this study was to determine whether osteoclasts have a primary cilium and to investigate whether or not the primary cilium of macrophages, osteoclast precursors, serves a functional role in osteoclast formation. Using immunocytochemistry, we showed the macrophages have a primary cilium, while osteoclasts lack this organelle. Furthermore, we increased macrophage primary cilia incidence and length using fenoldopam mesylate and found that cells undergoing such treatment showed a significant decrease in the expression of osteoclast markers tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, cathepsin K, and c-Fos, as well as decreased osteoclast formation. This work is the first to show that macrophage primary cilia resorption may be a necessary step for osteoclast differentiation. Since primary cilia and preosteoclasts are responsive to fluid flow, we applied fluid flow at magnitudes present in the bone marrow to differentiating cells and found that osteoclastic gene expression by macrophages was not affected by fluid flow mechanical stimulation, suggesting that the role of the primary cilium in osteoclastogenesis is not a mechanosensory one. The primary cilium has been suggested to play a role in bone formation, and our findings indicate that it may also present a means to regulate bone resorption, presenting a dual benefit of developing ciliary-targeted pharmaceuticals for bone disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael M. Sutton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael P. Duffy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Stefaan W. Verbruggen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Centre for Predictive in vitro Models, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and INSIGNEO Institute for in silico Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Christopher R. Jacobs
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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4
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Alexandrova A, Lomakina M. How does plasticity of migration help tumor cells to avoid treatment: Cytoskeletal regulators and potential markers. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:962652. [PMID: 36278174 PMCID: PMC9582651 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.962652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor shrinkage as a result of antitumor therapy is not the only and sufficient indicator of treatment success. Cancer progression leads to dissemination of tumor cells and formation of metastases - secondary tumor lesions in distant organs. Metastasis is associated with acquisition of mobile phenotype by tumor cells as a result of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and further cell migration based on cytoskeleton reorganization. The main mechanisms of individual cell migration are either mesenchymal, which depends on the activity of small GTPase Rac, actin polymerization, formation of adhesions with extracellular matrix and activity of proteolytic enzymes or amoeboid, which is based on the increase in intracellular pressure caused by the enhancement of actin cortex contractility regulated by Rho-ROCK-MLCKII pathway, and does not depend on the formation of adhesive structures with the matrix, nor on the activity of proteases. The ability of tumor cells to switch from one motility mode to another depending on cell context and environmental conditions, termed migratory plasticity, contributes to the efficiency of dissemination and often allows the cells to avoid the applied treatment. The search for new therapeutic targets among cytoskeletal proteins offers an opportunity to directly influence cell migration. For successful treatment it is important to assess the likelihood of migratory plasticity in a particular tumor. Therefore, the search for specific markers that can indicate a high probability of migratory plasticity is very important.
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Hedgehog Morphogens Act as Growth Factors Critical to Pre- and Postnatal Cardiac Development and Maturation: How Primary Cilia Mediate Their Signal Transduction. Cells 2022; 11:cells11121879. [PMID: 35741008 PMCID: PMC9221318 DOI: 10.3390/cells11121879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary cilia are crucial for normal cardiac organogenesis via the formation of cyto-architectural, anatomical, and physiological boundaries in the developing heart and outflow tract. These tiny, plasma membrane-bound organelles function in a sensory-integrative capacity, interpreting both the intra- and extra-cellular environments and directing changes in gene expression responses to promote, prevent, and modify cellular proliferation and differentiation. One distinct feature of this organelle is its involvement in the propagation of a variety of signaling cascades, most notably, the Hedgehog cascade. Three ligands, Sonic, Indian, and Desert hedgehog, function as growth factors that are most commonly dependent on the presence of intact primary cilia, where the Hedgehog receptors Patched-1 and Smoothened localize directly within or at the base of the ciliary axoneme. Hedgehog signaling functions to mediate many cell behaviors that are critical for normal embryonic tissue/organ development. However, inappropriate activation and/or upregulation of Hedgehog signaling in postnatal and adult tissue is known to initiate oncogenesis, as well as the pathogenesis of other diseases. The focus of this review is to provide an overview describing the role of Hedgehog signaling and its dependence upon the primary cilium in the cell types that are most essential for mammalian heart development. We outline the breadth of developmental defects and the consequential pathologies resulting from inappropriate changes to Hedgehog signaling, as it pertains to congenital heart disease and general cardiac pathophysiology.
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Willantarra I, Leung S, Choi YS, Chhana A, McGlashan SR. Chondrocyte-specific response to stiffness-mediated primary cilia formation and centriole positioning. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C236-C247. [PMID: 35649254 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00135.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical stress and the stiffness of the extracellular matrix are key drivers of tissue development and homeostasis. Aberrant mechanosensation is associated with a wide range of pathologies, including osteoarthritis. Matrix (or substrate) stiffness plays a major role in cell spreading, adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. However, how specific cells sense substrate stiffness still remains unclude. The primary cilium is an essential cellular organelle that senses and integrates mechanical and chemical signals from the extracellular environment. We hypothesised that the primary cilium dynamically alters its length and position to fine-tune cell mechanosignalling based on substrate stiffness alone. We used a hydrogel system of varying substrate stiffness to examine the role of stiffness on cilia frequency, length and centriole position as well as cell and nuclei area over time. Contrary to other cell types, we show that chondrocyte primary cilia shorten on softer substrates demonstrating tissue-specific mechanosensing which is aligned with the tissue stiffness the cells originate from. We further show that stiffness determines centriole positioning to either the basal or apical membrane during attachment and spreading, with centriole positioned towards the basal membrane on stiffer substrates. These phenomena are mediated by force generation actin-myosin stress fibres in a time-dependent manner. Finally we show on stiff substrates, that primary cilia are involved in tension-mediated cell spreading. We propose that substrate stiffness plays a role in cilia positioning, regulating cellular responses to external forces, and may be a key driver of mechanosignalling-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanna Willantarra
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Sophia Leung
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Yu Suk Choi
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Ashika Chhana
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Sue R McGlashan
- Department of Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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7
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Coveney CR, Samvelyan HJ, Miotla-Zarebska J, Carnegie J, Chang E, Corrin CJ, Coveney T, Stott B, Parisi I, Duarte C, Vincent TL, Staines KA, Wann AK. Ciliary IFT88 Protects Coordinated Adolescent Growth Plate Ossification From Disruptive Physiological Mechanical Forces. J Bone Miner Res 2022; 37:1081-1096. [PMID: 35038201 PMCID: PMC9304194 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Compared with our understanding of endochondral ossification, much less is known about the coordinated arrest of growth defined by the narrowing and fusion of the cartilaginous growth plate. Throughout the musculoskeletal system, appropriate cell and tissue responses to mechanical force delineate morphogenesis and ensure lifelong health. It remains unclear how mechanical cues are integrated into many biological programs, including those coordinating the ossification of the adolescent growth plate at the cessation of growth. Primary cilia are microtubule-based organelles tuning a range of cell activities, including signaling cascades activated or modulated by extracellular biophysical cues. Cilia have been proposed to directly facilitate cell mechanotransduction. To explore the influence of primary cilia in the mouse adolescent limb, we conditionally targeted the ciliary gene Intraflagellar transport protein 88 (Ift88fl/fl ) in the juvenile and adolescent skeleton using a cartilage-specific, inducible Cre (AggrecanCreERT2 Ift88fl/fl ). Deletion of IFT88 in cartilage, which reduced ciliation in the growth plate, disrupted chondrocyte differentiation, cartilage resorption, and mineralization. These effects were largely restricted to peripheral tibial regions beneath the load-bearing compartments of the knee. These regions were typified by an enlarged population of hypertrophic chondrocytes. Although normal patterns of hedgehog signaling were maintained, targeting IFT88 inhibited hypertrophic chondrocyte VEGF expression and downstream vascular recruitment, osteoclastic activity, and the replacement of cartilage with bone. In control mice, increases to physiological loading also impair ossification in the peripheral growth plate, mimicking the effects of IFT88 deletion. Limb immobilization inhibited changes to VEGF expression and epiphyseal morphology in Ift88cKO mice, indicating the effects of depletion of IFT88 in the adolescent growth plate are mechano-dependent. We propose that during this pivotal phase in adolescent skeletal maturation, ciliary IFT88 protects uniform, coordinated ossification of the growth plate from an otherwise disruptive heterogeneity of physiological mechanical forces. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa R Coveney
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Hasmik J Samvelyan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
| | - Jadwiga Miotla-Zarebska
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Josephine Carnegie
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Emer Chang
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - C Jonty Corrin
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Trystan Coveney
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Bryony Stott
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ida Parisi
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Claudia Duarte
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tonia L Vincent
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Katherine A Staines
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
| | - Angus Kt Wann
- Centre for OA Pathogenesis Versus Arthritis, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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8
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Morningstar JE, Gensemer C, Moore R, Fulmer D, Beck TC, Wang C, Moore K, Guo L, Sieg F, Nagata Y, Bertrand P, Spampinato RA, Glover J, Poelzing S, Gourdie RG, Watts K, Richardson WJ, Levine RA, Borger MA, Norris RA. Mitral Valve Prolapse Induces Regionalized Myocardial Fibrosis. J Am Heart Assoc 2021; 10:e022332. [PMID: 34873924 PMCID: PMC9075228 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.121.022332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Background Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) is one of the most common forms of cardiac valve disease and affects 2% to 3% of the population. Previous imaging reports have indicated that myocardial fibrosis is common in MVP and described its association with sudden cardiac death. These data combined with evidence for postrepair ventricular dysfunction in surgical patients with MVP support a link between fibrosis and MVP. Methods and Results We performed histopathologic analysis of left ventricular (LV) biopsies from peripapillary regions, inferobasal LV wall and apex on surgical patients with MVP, as well as in a mouse model of human MVP (Dzip1S14R/+). Tension-dependent molecular pathways were subsequently assessed using both computational modeling and cyclical stretch of primary human cardiac fibroblasts in vitro. Histopathology of LV biopsies revealed regionalized fibrosis in the peripapillary myocardium that correlated with increased macrophages and myofibroblasts. The MVP mouse model exhibited similar regional increases in collagen deposition that progress over time. As observed in the patient biopsies, increased macrophages and myofibroblasts were observed in fibrotic areas within the murine heart. Computational modeling revealed tension-dependent profibrotic cellular and molecular responses consistent with fibrosis locations related to valve-induced stress. These simulations also identified mechanosensing primary cilia as involved in profibrotic pathways, which was validated in vitro and in human biopsies. Finally, in vitro stretching of primary human cardiac fibroblasts showed that stretch directly activates profibrotic pathways and increases extracellular matrix protein production. Conclusions The presence of prominent regional LV fibrosis in patients and mice with MVP supports a relationship between MVP and progressive damaging effects on LV structure before overt alterations in cardiac function. The regionalized molecular and cellular changes suggest a reactive response of the papillary and inferobasal myocardium to increased chordal tension from a prolapsing valve. These studies raise the question whether surgical intervention on patients with MVP should occur earlier than indicated by current guidelines to prevent advanced LV fibrosis and potentially reduce residual risk of LV dysfunction and sudden cardiac death.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Reece Moore
- Medical University of South CarolinaCharlestonSC
| | - Diana Fulmer
- Medical University of South CarolinaCharlestonSC
| | | | | | - Kelsey Moore
- Medical University of South CarolinaCharlestonSC
| | - Lilong Guo
- Medical University of South CarolinaCharlestonSC
| | - Franz Sieg
- Leipzig Heart InstituteUniversity of LeipzigGermany
| | - Yasufumi Nagata
- Cardiac Ultrasound LaboratoryCardiology DivisionMassachusetts General HospitalBostonMA
| | - Philippe Bertrand
- Cardiac Ultrasound LaboratoryCardiology DivisionMassachusetts General HospitalBostonMA
| | | | | | - Stephen Poelzing
- Center for Heart and Reparative Medicine ResearchFralin Biomedical Research InstituteVirginia TechRoanokeVA
| | - Robert G. Gourdie
- Center for Heart and Reparative Medicine ResearchFralin Biomedical Research InstituteVirginia TechRoanokeVA
| | - Kelsey Watts
- Biomedical Data Science and Informatics ProgramDepartment of BioengineeringClemson UniversityClemsonSC
| | - William J. Richardson
- Biomedical Data Science and Informatics ProgramDepartment of BioengineeringClemson UniversityClemsonSC
| | - Robert A. Levine
- Cardiac Ultrasound LaboratoryCardiology DivisionMassachusetts General HospitalBostonMA
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Li J, Sun Z, Lv Z, Jiang H, Liu A, Wang M, Tan G, Guo H, Sun H, Wu R, Xu X, Yan W, Jiang Q, Ikegawa S, Shi D. Microtubule Stabilization Enhances the Chondrogenesis of Synovial Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:748804. [PMID: 34746145 PMCID: PMC8564364 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.748804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are well known for their multi-directional differentiation potential and are widely applied in cartilage and bone disease. Synovial mesenchymal stem cells (SMSCs) exhibit a high proliferation rate, low immunogenicity, and greater chondrogenic differentiation potential. Microtubule (MT) plays a key role in various cellular processes. Perturbation of MT stability and their associated proteins is an underlying cause for diseases. Little is known about the role of MT stabilization in the differentiation and homeostasis of SMSCs. In this study, we demonstrated that MT stabilization via docetaxel treatment had a significant effect on enhancing the chondrogenic differentiation of SMSCs. MT stabilization inhibited the expression of Yes-associated proteins (YAP) and the formation of primary cilia in SMSCs to drive chondrogenesis. This finding suggested that MT stabilization might be a promising therapeutic target of cartilage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Ziying Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhongyang Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Huiming Jiang
- Department of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, The Affiliated Nanjing Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Anlong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Maochun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Guihua Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Hu Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Heng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Rui Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Xingquan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenjin Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Qing Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Shiro Ikegawa
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory for Bone and Joint Diseases, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Science (IMS, RIKEN), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Dongquan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Division of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
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10
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Lin LJ, Ge YM, Tian Y, Liu N, Luo XH, Xue YT, Xue YZB, Wen CY, Tang B. Multi-scale mechanical investigation of articular cartilage suffered progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2020; 79:104947. [PMID: 31959394 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2019.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia is a rare skeletal dysplasia mainly caused by abnormal autosomal recessive inheritance. Although the main function of cartilage is mechanical support and the characteristics of this disease is the degradation of AC, previous studies on it had been mainly focused on clinical and genetic aspects and the mechanical behavior of the cartilage affected by PPRD is still ambiguous. In this study, we investigate the mechanics and structure of the cartilage suffered disease at multi-scale, from individual chondrocytes to the bulk-scale tissue. METHODS Depth-sensing indenter were employed to investigate the mechanics of cartilage; we performed atomic force microscope nanoindentation to investigate the cell mechanics and scanning electron microscopy were used to explore the structure feature and chemical composition. FINDINGS The elastic modulus of chondrocytes harvested from cartilage suffered from progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia is significantly higher than from normal cartilage, same trend were also found in tissue level. Moreover, denser collagen meshwork and matrix calcification were also observed. INTERPRETATION The elastic modulus of cartilage should closely related to its denser structure and the calcification, and may potentially be an indicator for clinical diagnosis. The stiffening of chondrocytes during PPRD progression should play a rather important role in its pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Y M Ge
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Y Tian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - N Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - X H Luo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Y T Xue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Y Z B Xue
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - C Y Wen
- Interdisciplinary Division of Biomedical Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, HKUSAR, China
| | - B Tang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
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11
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Chen S, Qin L, Wu X, Fu X, Lin S, Chen D, Xiao G, Shao Z, Cao H. Moderate Fluid Shear Stress Regulates Heme Oxygenase-1 Expression to Promote Autophagy and ECM Homeostasis in the Nucleus Pulposus Cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:127. [PMID: 32195253 PMCID: PMC7064043 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In vertebrate, the nucleus pulposus (NP), which is an essential component of the intervertebral disk, is constantly impacted by fluid shear stress (FSS); however, molecular mechanism(s) through which FSS modulates the NP homeostasis is poorly understood. Here we show that FSS regulates the extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis in NP cells. A moderate dose of FSS (i.e., 12 dyne/cm2) increases the sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content and protein levels of Col2a1 and Aggrecan and decreases those of matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP13) and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motif 5 (ADMATS5) in rat NP cells, while a higher dose of FSS (i.e., 24 dyne/cm2) displays opposite effects. Results from RNA sequencing analysis, quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis and western blotting establish that the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a key downstream mediator of the FSS actions in NP cells. HO-1 knockdown abolishes FSS-induced alterations in ECM protein production and sGAG content in NP cells, which is reversed by HO-1 induction. Furthermore, FSS activates the autophagic pathway by increasing the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, Beclin-1 protein level, and formation of autophagosome and autolysosome and thereby regulates ECM protein and sGAG production in a HO-1 dependent manner. Finally, we demonstrate that the intraflagellar transport (IFT) 88, a core trafficking protein of primary cilia, is critically involved in the HO-1-mediated autophagy activation and ECM protein and sGAG production in FSS-treated NP cells. Thus, we for the first time demonstrate that FSS plays an important role in maintaining ECM homeostasis through HO-1-dependent activation of autophagy in NP cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Lei Qin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaohao Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xuekun Fu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Sixiong Lin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Orthopedic Research Institute and Department of Spinal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Di Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Guozhi Xiao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zengwu Shao
- Department of Orthopaedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huiling Cao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment and Disease Research, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Cell Microenvironment, and Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
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12
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Finetti F, Capitani N, Baldari CT. Emerging Roles of the Intraflagellar Transport System in the Orchestration of Cellular Degradation Pathways. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:292. [PMID: 31803744 PMCID: PMC6877659 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciliated cells exploit a specific transport system, the intraflagellar transport (IFT) system, to ensure the traffic of molecules from the cell body to the cilium. However, it is now clear that IFT activity is not restricted to cilia-related functions. This is strikingly exemplified by the observation that IFT proteins play important roles in cells lacking a primary cilium, such as lymphocytes. Indeed, in T cells the IFT system regulates the polarized transport of endosome-associated T cell antigen receptors and signaling mediators during assembly of the immune synapse, a specialized interface that forms on encounter with a cognate antigen presenting cell and on which T cell activation and effector function crucially depend. Cellular degradation pathways have recently emerged as new extraciliary functions of the IFT system. IFT proteins have been demonstrated to regulate autophagy in ciliated cells through their ability to recruit the autophagy machinery to the base of the cilium. We have now implicated the IFT component IFT20 in another central degradation process that also controls the latest steps in autophagy, namely lysosome function, by regulating the cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR)-dependent lysosomal targeting of acid hydrolases. This involves the ability of IFT20 to act as an adaptor coupling the CI-MPR to dynein for retrograde transport to the trans-Golgi network. In this short review we will discuss the emerging roles of IFT proteins in cellular degradation pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nagaja Capitani
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
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13
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Hu J, Chen S, Hu W, Lü S, Long M. Mechanical Point Loading Induces Cortex Stiffening and Actin Reorganization. Biophys J 2019; 117:1405-1418. [PMID: 31585706 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Global cytoskeleton reorganization is well-recognized when cells are exposed to distinct mechanical stimuli, but the localized responses at a specified region of a cell are still unclear. In this work, we mapped the cell-surface mechanical property of single cells in situ before and after static point loading these cells using atomic force microscopy in PeakForce-Quantitative Nano Mechanics mode. Cell-surface stiffness was elevated at a maximum of 1.35-fold at the vicinity of loading site, indicating an enhanced structural protection of the cortex to the cell. Mechanical modeling also elucidated the structural protection from the stiffened cell cortex, in which 9-15% and 10-19% decrease of maximum stress and strain of the nucleus were obtained. Furthermore, the flat-ended atomic force microscopy probes were used to capture cytoskeleton reorganization after point loading quantitatively, revealing that the larger the applied force and the longer the loading time are, the more pronounced cytoskeleton reorganization is. Also, point loading using a microneedle combined with real-time confocal microscopy uncovered the fast dynamics of actin cytoskeleton reorganization for actin-stained live cells after point loading (<10 s). These results furthered the understandings in the transmission of localized mechanical forces into an adherent cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinrong Hu
- Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, and CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shenbao Chen
- Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, and CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenhui Hu
- Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, and CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Immune Cells and Antibody Engineering Research Center of Guizhou Province, Key Laboratory of Biology and Medical Engineering, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shouqin Lü
- Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, and CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Mian Long
- Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, and CAS Center for Excellence in Complex System Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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14
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Taulet N, Douanier A, Vitre B, Anguille C, Maurin J, Dromard Y, Georget V, Delaval B. IFT88 controls NuMA enrichment at k-fibers minus-ends to facilitate their re-anchoring into mitotic spindles. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10311. [PMID: 31312011 PMCID: PMC6635507 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46605-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To build and maintain mitotic spindle architecture, molecular motors exert spatially regulated forces on microtubules (MT) minus-ends. This spatial regulation is required to allow proper chromosomes alignment through the organization of kinetochore fibers (k-fibers). NuMA was recently shown to target dynactin to MT minus-ends and thus to spatially regulate dynein activity. However, given that k-fibers are embedded in the spindle, our understanding of the machinery involved in the targeting of proteins to their minus-ends remains limited. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins were primarily studied for their ciliary roles but they also emerged as key regulators of cell division. Taking advantage of MT laser ablation, we show here that IFT88 concentrates at k-fibers minus-ends and is required for their re-anchoring into spindles by controlling NuMA accumulation. Indeed, IFT88 interacts with NuMA and is required for its enrichment at newly generated k-fibers minus-ends. Combining nocodazole washout experiments and IFT88 depletion, we further show that IFT88 is required for the reorganization of k-fibers into spindles and thus for efficient chromosomes alignment in mitosis. Overall, we propose that IFT88 could serve as a mitotic MT minus-end adaptor to concentrate NuMA at minus-ends thus facilitating k-fibers incorporation into the main spindle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Taulet
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France.
| | - Audrey Douanier
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Benjamin Vitre
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Christelle Anguille
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Justine Maurin
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Yann Dromard
- Montpellier Ressources Imagerie, CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Virginie Georget
- Montpellier Ressources Imagerie, CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Benedicte Delaval
- CRBM, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier, Centrosome, cilia and pathologies Lab, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France.
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15
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Li Y, Li Y, Zhang Q, Wang L, Guo M, Wu X, Guo Y, Chen J, Chen W. Mechanical Properties of Chondrocytes Estimated from Different Models of Micropipette Aspiration. Biophys J 2019; 116:2181-2194. [PMID: 31103225 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, two viscoelastic creep expressions for the aspirated length of individual solid-like cells undergoing micropipette aspiration (MPA) were derived based on our previous studies wherein the cell size relative to the micropipette and the cell compressibility were taken into account. Next, three mechanical models of MPA, the half-space model (HSM), incompressible sphere model (ICSM), and compressible sphere model (CSM), were employed to fit the MPA data of chondrocytes. The results indicated that the elastic moduli and viscoelastic parameters of chondrocytes for the ICSM and CSM exhibited significantly higher values than those from the HSM (p < 0.001) because of the considerations of the geometric parameter (ξ) and the compressibility of the cell (ν). For the normal chondrocytes, the elastic moduli obtained from the ICSM and CSM (ν = 0.3) were 47.4 and 78.9% higher than those from the HSM. In the viscoelasticity, the parameters k1, k2, and μ for the ICSM were respectively increased by 37.8, 37.9, and 39.0% compared to those from the HSM, whereas for the CSM (ν = 0.3), the above parameters were 135, 314, and 257% higher compared to those from the HSM. And with the increase of ξ and ν, the above mechanical parameters decreased. Furthermore, the thresholds of ξ varying with ν were obtained for the given values of relative errors caused by the HSM in the elastic and viscoelastic parameters. The above findings obviously indicated that the geometric parameter of MPA and the Poisson's ratio of a cell have marked influences on the determination of cellular mechanical parameters by MPA and thus should be considered in the pursuit of more accurate investigations of the mechanical properties of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongsheng Li
- Institute of Applied Mechanics, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yueqin Li
- Shanxi Dayi Hospital, Taiyuan, China; Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Taiyuan, China
| | - Quanyou Zhang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Lili Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Meiqing Guo
- Institute of Applied Mechanics, College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Xiaogang Wu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yuan Guo
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China.
| | - Weiyi Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China.
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16
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Khan ZS, Santos JM, Vaz NG, Hussain F. Enhanced blebbing as a marker for metastatic prostate cancer. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2019; 13:034110. [PMID: 31431812 PMCID: PMC6697032 DOI: 10.1063/1.5085346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Highly metastatic prostate cancer cells flowing through a microfluidic channel form plasma membrane blebs: they form 27% more than normal cells and have a lower stiffness (about 50%). Hypo-osmotic stress assays (with ∼ 50 % osmolarity) show 22% more blebbing of highly metastatic than moderately metastatic and 30% more than normal cells. Plasma membrane blebbing is known to provide important metastatic capabilities to cancer cells by aiding cell detachment from the primary tumor site and increasing cell deformability to promote cell migration through the extracellular matrix. Increased blebbing was attributed by others to decreased phosphorylated ezrin, radixin, and moesin (ERM) (p-ERM) protein expression-p-ERMs bind the plasma membrane to the actin cortex and reduced p-ERM expression can weaken membrane-cortex attachment. Myosin II also influences blebbing as myosin's natural contraction generates tension in the actin cortex. This increases cellular hydrostatic pressure, causes cortex rupture, cytoplasm flow out of the cortex, and hence blebbing. Highly metastatic cells are surprisingly found to express similar ezrin and myosin II levels but higher moesin levels in comparison with lowly metastatic or normal cells-suggesting that their levels, contrary to the literature [G. Charras and E. Paluch, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 9(9), 730-736 (2008); J.-Y. Tinevez, U. Schulze, G. Salbreux, J. Roensch, J.-F. Joanny, and E. Paluch, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106(44), 18581-18586 (2009); M. Bergert, S. D. Chandradoss, R. A. Desai, and E. Paluch, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109(36), 14434-14439 (2012); E. K. Paluch and E. Raz: Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 25(5), 582-590 (2013)], are not important in metastatic prostate cell blebbing. Our results show that reduced F-actin is primarily responsible for increased blebbing in these metastatic cells. Blebbing can thus serve as a simple prognostic marker for the highly incident and lethal metastatic prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeina S Khan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
| | - Julianna M Santos
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
| | - Neil G Vaz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
| | - Fazle Hussain
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA
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17
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Beyer T, Bolz S, Junger K, Horn N, Moniruzzaman M, Wissinger Y, Ueffing M, Boldt K. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Genomic Editing of Cluap1/IFT38 Reveals a New Role in Actin Arrangement. Mol Cell Proteomics 2018; 17:1285-1294. [PMID: 29615496 PMCID: PMC6030719 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra117.000487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing allows manipulation of a gene of interest in its own chromosomal context. When applied to the analysis of protein interactions and in contrast to exogenous expression of a protein, this can be studied maintaining physiological stoichiometry, topology, and context. We have used CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genomic editing to investigate Cluap1/IFT38, a component of the intraflagellar transport complex B (IFT-B). Cluap1 has been implicated in human development as well as in cancer progression. Cluap1 loss of function results in early developmental defects with neural tube closure, sonic hedgehog signaling and left-right defects. Herein, we generated an endogenously tagged Cluap1 for protein complex analysis, which was then correlated to the corresponding interactome determined by ectopic expression. Besides IFT-B complex components, new interacting proteins like Ephrin-B1 and TRIP6, which are known to be involved in cytoskeletal arrangement and protein transport, were identified. With the identification of platelet-derived growth factor A (PDGFA) and coiled-coil domain-containing protein 6 (CCDC6) two new interactions were discovered, which link Cluap1 to ciliogenesis and cancer development. The CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of Cluap1 revealed a new phenotype affecting the actin cytoskeleton. Together, these data provide first evidence for a role of Cluap1 not only for cilia assembly and maintenance but also for cytoskeletal rearrangement and intracellular transport processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Beyer
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany;
| | - Sylvia Bolz
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katrin Junger
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nicola Horn
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Muhammad Moniruzzaman
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Yasmin Wissinger
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
- §Thermo Fisher Scientific, Clinical Diagnostics Systems, Neuendorfstr. 25, 16761 Hennigsdorf, Germany
| | - Marius Ueffing
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Karsten Boldt
- From the ‡Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Centre for Ophthalmology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 7, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany;
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18
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Hua K, Ferland RJ. Primary cilia proteins: ciliary and extraciliary sites and functions. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:1521-1540. [PMID: 29305615 PMCID: PMC5899021 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2740-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Primary cilia are immotile organelles known for their roles in development and cell signaling. Defects in primary cilia result in a range of disorders named ciliopathies. Because this organelle can be found singularly on almost all cell types, its importance extends to most organ systems. As such, elucidating the importance of the primary cilium has attracted researchers from all biological disciplines. As the primary cilia field expands, caution is warranted in attributing biological defects solely to the function of this organelle, since many of these "ciliary" proteins are found at other sites in cells and likely have non-ciliary functions. Indeed, many, if not all, cilia proteins have locations and functions outside the primary cilium. Extraciliary functions are known to include cell cycle regulation, cytoskeletal regulation, and trafficking. Cilia proteins have been observed in the nucleus, at the Golgi apparatus, and even in immune synapses of T cells (interestingly, a non-ciliated cell). Given the abundance of extraciliary sites and functions, it can be difficult to definitively attribute an observed phenotype solely to defective cilia rather than to some defective extraciliary function or a combination of both. Thus, extraciliary sites and functions of cilia proteins need to be considered, as well as experimentally determined. Through such consideration, we will understand the true role of the primary cilium in disease as compared to other cellular processes' influences in mediating disease (or through a combination of both). Here, we review a compilation of known extraciliary sites and functions of "cilia" proteins as a means to demonstrate the potential non-ciliary roles for these proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiet Hua
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
| | - Russell J Ferland
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
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19
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Li Y, Chen J, Wang L, Guo Y, Feng J, Chen W. Experimental Verification of the Elastic Formula for the Aspirated Length of a Single Cell Considering the Size and Compressibility of Cell During Micropipette Aspiration. Ann Biomed Eng 2018; 46:1026-1037. [PMID: 29637316 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-018-2023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study, an aspiration system for elastic spheres was developed to verify the approximate elastic formula for the aspirated length of a single solid-like cell undergoing micropipette aspiration (MPA), which was obtained in our previous study by theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. Using this system, foam silicone rubber spheres with different diameters and mechanical properties were aspirated in a manner similar to the MPA of single cells. Comparisons between the approximate elastic formula and aspiration experiments of spheres indicated that the predictions of the formula agreed with the experimental results. Additionally, combined with the MPA data of rabbit chondrocytes, differences in terms of the elastic parameters derived from the half-space model, incompressible sphere model, and compressible sphere model were explored. The results demonstrated that the parameter ξ (ξ = R/a, where R is the radius of the cell and a is the inner radius of the micropipette) and Poisson's ratio significantly influenced the determination of the elastic modulus and bulk modulus of the cell. This work developed for the first time an aspiration system of elastic spheres to study the elastic responses of the MPA of a single cell and provided new evidence supporting the use of the approximate elastic formula to determine cellular elastic parameters from the MPA data.
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Affiliation(s)
- YongSheng Li
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 West Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 West Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China
| | - LiLi Wang
- Institute of Applied Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 West Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China
| | - Yuan Guo
- Institute of Applied Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 West Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China
| | - JiLing Feng
- Department of Design, Manufacture, and Engineering Management, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XQ, Scotland, UK
| | - WeiYi Chen
- Institute of Applied Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 West Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, China.
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20
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Xiang W, Zhang J, Wang R, Wang L, Wang S, Wu Y, Dong Y, Guo F, Xu T. Role of IFT88 in icariin‑regulated maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype. Mol Med Rep 2018; 17:4999-5006. [PMID: 29393439 PMCID: PMC5865960 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2018.8486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype is crucial for cartilage repair during tissue engineering. Intraflagellar transport protein 88 (IFT88) is an essential component of primary cilia, shuttling signals along the axoneme. The hypothesis of the present study was that IFT88 could exert an important role in icariin‑regulated maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype. To this end, the effects of icariin on proliferation and differentiation of the chondrogenic cell line, ATDC5, were explored. Icariin‑treated ATDC5 cells and primary chondrocytes expressed IFT88. Icariin has been demonstrated to aid in the maintenance of the articular cartilage phenotype in a rat model of post‑traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Icariin promoted chondrocyte proliferation and expression of the chondrogenesis marker genes, COL II and SOX9, increased ciliary assembly, and upregulated IFT88 expression in a concentration‑ and time‑dependent manner. Icariin‑treated PTOA rats secreted more cartilage matrix compared with the controls. Knockdown of IFT88 expression with siRNA reduced extracellular signal‑regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, and icariin upregulated IFT88 expression by promoting ERK phosphorylation. Thus, IFT88 serves a major role in icariin‑mediated maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype, promoting ciliogenesis and IFT88 expression by increasing ERK phosphorylation. Icariin may therefore be useful for maintenance of the cartilage phenotype during tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xiang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Jiaming Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Limei Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Shengjie Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yingxing Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Yonghui Dong
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Fengjing Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
| | - Tao Xu
- Department of Rehabilitation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, P.R. China
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Martin L, Kaci N, Estibals V, Goudin N, Garfa-Traore M, Benoist-Lasselin C, Dambroise E, Legeai-Mallet L. Constitutively-active FGFR3 disrupts primary cilium length and IFT20 trafficking in various chondrocyte models of achondroplasia. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 27:1-13. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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22
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Thorpe SD, Gambassi S, Thompson CL, Chandrakumar C, Santucci A, Knight MM. Reduced primary cilia length and altered Arl13b expression are associated with deregulated chondrocyte Hedgehog signaling in alkaptonuria. J Cell Physiol 2017; 232:2407-2417. [PMID: 28158906 PMCID: PMC5484994 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alkaptonuria (AKU) is a rare inherited disease resulting from a deficiency of the enzyme homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase which leads to the accumulation of homogentisic acid (HGA). AKU is characterized by severe cartilage degeneration, similar to that observed in osteoarthritis. Previous studies suggest that AKU is associated with alterations in cytoskeletal organization which could modulate primary cilia structure/function. This study investigated whether AKU is associated with changes in chondrocyte primary cilia and associated Hedgehog signaling which mediates cartilage degradation in osteoarthritis. Human articular chondrocytes were obtained from healthy and AKU donors. Additionally, healthy chondrocytes were treated with HGA to replicate AKU pathology (+HGA). Diseased cells exhibited shorter cilia with length reductions of 36% and 16% in AKU and +HGA chondrocytes respectively, when compared to healthy controls. Both AKU and +HGA chondrocytes demonstrated disruption of the usual cilia length regulation by actin contractility. Furthermore, the proportion of cilia with axoneme breaks and bulbous tips was increased in AKU chondrocytes consistent with defective regulation of ciliary trafficking. Distribution of the Hedgehog-related protein Arl13b along the ciliary axoneme was altered such that its localization was increased at the distal tip in AKU and +HGA chondrocytes. These changes in cilia structure/trafficking in AKU and +HGA chondrocytes were associated with a complete inability to activate Hedgehog signaling in response to exogenous ligand. Thus, we suggest that altered responsiveness to Hedgehog, as a consequence of cilia dysfunction, may be a contributing factor in the development of arthropathy highlighting the cilium as a novel target in AKU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D. Thorpe
- Institute of BioengineeringSchool of Engineering and Materials ScienceQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Silvia Gambassi
- Dipartimento di BiotecnologieChimica e FarmaciaUniversità degli Studi di SienaSienaItaly
| | - Clare L. Thompson
- Institute of BioengineeringSchool of Engineering and Materials ScienceQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Charmilie Chandrakumar
- Institute of BioengineeringSchool of Engineering and Materials ScienceQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Annalisa Santucci
- Dipartimento di BiotecnologieChimica e FarmaciaUniversità degli Studi di SienaSienaItaly
| | - Martin M. Knight
- Institute of BioengineeringSchool of Engineering and Materials ScienceQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
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TGFβ1 - induced recruitment of human bone mesenchymal stem cells is mediated by the primary cilium in a SMAD3-dependent manner. Sci Rep 2016; 6:35542. [PMID: 27748449 PMCID: PMC5066273 DOI: 10.1038/srep35542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is a crucial process in the development, maintenance and repair of tissues throughout the body. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1) is a potent chemokine essential for the recruitment of MSCs in bone, coupling the remodelling cycle. The primary cilium is a sensory organelle with important roles in bone and has been associated with cell migration and more recently TGFβ signalling. Dysregulation of TGFβ signalling or cilia has been linked to a number of skeletal pathologies. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the role of the primary cilium in TGFβ1 signalling and associated migration in human MSCs. In this study we demonstrate that low levels of TGFβ1 induce the recruitment of MSCs, which relies on proper formation of the cilium. Furthermore, we demonstrate that receptors and downstream signalling components in canonical TGFβ signalling localize to the cilium and that TGFβ1 signalling is associated with activation of SMAD3 at the ciliary base. These findings demonstrate a novel role for the primary cilium in the regulation of TGFβ signalling and subsequent migration of MSCs, and highlight the cilium as a target to manipulate this key pathway and enhance MSC recruitment for the treatment of skeletal diseases.
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Yuan X, Yang S. Primary Cilia and Intraflagellar Transport Proteins in Bone and Cartilage. J Dent Res 2016; 95:1341-1349. [PMID: 27250654 DOI: 10.1177/0022034516652383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary cilia, present on most mammalian cells, function as a sensor to sense the environment change and transduce signaling. Loss of primary cilia causes a group of human pleiotropic syndromes called Ciliopathies. Some of the ciliopathies display skeletal dysplasias, implying the important role of primary cilia in skeletal development and homeostasis. Emerging evidence has shown that loss or malfunction of primary cilia or ciliary proteins in bone and cartilage is associated with developmental and function defects. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins are essential for cilia formation and/or function. In this review, we discuss the role of primary cilia and IFT proteins in the development of bone and cartilage, as well as the differentiation and mechanotransduction of mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and chondrocytes. We also include the role of primary cilia in tooth development and highlight the current advance of primary cilia and IFT proteins in the pathogenesis of cartilage diseases, including osteoarthritis, osteosarcoma, and chondrosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Yuan
- 1 Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - S Yang
- 1 Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA.,2 Developmental Genomics Group, New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
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