Pectoralis major myocutaneous flap--still a workhorse for maxillofacial reconstruction in developing countries

Versatility of the myocutaneous pectoralis major flap in oncology reconstruction: A literature review and practical application

Pectoralis major muscle flaps are considered versatile and allow large reconstructions of anatomical defects within a single surgical procedure. Considered a "workhorse" due to these characteristics, the pectoralis major muscle is an excellent option for surgical reconstruction. Several uses of this flap are described in the literature, such as protection of the jugulocarotid system after cervical lymph node dissection, oral, cervical, breast, diaphragmatic, hypopharyngeal, pharyngeal, laryngeal, and esophageal reconstructions.

Reconstruction of Partial Hypopharyngeal Defects following Total Laryngectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Various operative techniques exist to reconstruct partial hypopharyngeal defects following total laryngectomy. The current study aimed to investigate and compare complications and functional results following commonly used reconstructive techniques.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed using studies that investigated outcomes after the reconstruction of a partial hypopharyngeal defect. The outcomes of interest were fistulas, strictures, flap failure, swallowing function and postoperative speech.

RESULTS

Of the 4035 studies identified, 23 were included in this review. Four common reconstructive techniques were reported, with a total of 794 patients: (1) pectoralis major myocutaneous and (2) myofascial flap, (3) anterolateral thigh free flap and (4) radial forearm free flap. Fistulas occurred significantly more often than pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps (34%, 95% CI 23-47%) compared with other flaps (p < 0.001). No significant differences in the rates of strictures or flap failure were observed. Pectoralis major myofascial flaps were non-inferior to free-flap reconstructions. Insufficient data were available to assess speech results between flap types.

CONCLUSION

Pectoralis myocutaneous flaps should not be the preferred method of reconstruction for most patients, considering their significantly higher rate of fistulas. In contrast, pectoralis major myofascial flaps yield promising results compared to free-flap reconstructions, warranting further investigation.

Evaluating Pedicled Pectoralis Major Myocutaneous Flap Reconstructions for Oral Malignancy and the Influence of Laterally Based Rotational Advancement Flap on Donor Site Integrity and Nipple Position in Male Patients

Oral cancer poses a significant health burden, particularly in the male population of India. This study focuses on evaluating the outcomes of 48 pedicled Pectoralis major myocutaneous (PMMC) flap reconstructions in male patients with oral malignancy. Given the challenges associated with microvascular flap reconstructions, especially in advanced cancer cases, older patients, and resource-constrained settings, the PMMC flap still serves as a valuable alternative. The study introduces a novel approach by incorporating a laterally based rotational advancement flap (LBRA) to address donor site integrity and decrease the nipple-areolar complex (NAC) displacement. Traditionally, PMMC flap designs tend to cause inward shifting of the NAC during chest donor site closure, impacting the aesthetic outcome. Surgical techniques involved wide local resection, neck dissection, and PMMC flap reconstruction. The Flap design included a horizontal orientation with adjustments based on defect location. Additionally, a laterally based rotational flap from the chest aided in donor site closure. Results demonstrate the versatility and reliability of PMMC flap reconstructions, with no total flap necrosis or major complications observed in the 48 cases. The LBRA technique effectively mitigated NAC displacement. The study contributes to the existing literature by providing insights into the advantages of PMMC flap reconstructions and introducing a technique to optimize donor site closure and decrease the medial shifting of the nipple. The adaptability, reliable vascular supply, and simplified learning curve make the PMMC flap a preferred choice in resource-constrained settings with high patient demand. In conclusion, this research underscores the continued relevance and effectiveness of the PMMC flap in head and neck reconstruction, offering satisfactory cosmetic and functional results. The introduction of the LBRA technique adds a nuanced dimension to improve outcomes, particularly in male patients with oral malignancy.

Can Lateral Thoracic Artery Preservation Improve Results in Large PMMC Flaps? - Our Experience of 61 Cases from Northern India

Introduction: Pectoralis major myo-cutaneous (PMMC) flap continues to be a widely used tool to reconstruct oral cavity defects. But an unreliable and unstable vascular supply can lead to complications like flap loss, Oro-cutaneous fistula and wound dehiscence. Preservation of the lateral thoracic artery (LTA) has been suggested to improve the vascularity of the skin paddle. The present study aspires to compare the complications and flap related outcomes after preserving or sacrificing the LTA while reconstructing oral cavity defects with bi-folded PMMC flap. Materials and Methods: Retrospective analysis of the data of 61 male patients who were reconstructed with bi-folded PMMC flaps between January 2022 and September 2022 was done. 36 patients were reconstructed using a PMMC flap where the LTA was sacrificed, whereas in 25 patients the LTA was preserved. Data was analyzed in terms of patient factors and flap related complications. Results: The overall complication rate including major/minor complications was 44.26% with flap detachment at 22.95% being the commonest complication observed. 13.11% patients developed an Oro-cutaneous fistula and partial and complete flap loss were seen in 9.83% and 4.91% respectively. LTA preservation was significantly associated with only decreased flap detachment rates (p value < 0.05). No significant association was noticed between other flap related complications and LTA preservation. Conclusion: Reconstructing larger defects with a PMMC flap where the LTA is preserved can help improve the vascularity of the flap and decrease various major/minor flap related complications.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12070-023-04123-3.

A Modified Design of the Pectoralis Major Myocutaneous Flap for Reconstruction of Head and Neck Defect

ABSTRACT

Even though the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF) still has an important role in the free flaps ear, it is reported to have drawbacks such as the limited cephalad extension and high incidence of total or partial flap necrosis. Various modifications have been attempted to augment the limited cephalad extension and a stable blood supply.The aim of this study is to describe a modified design of the skin paddle and preparation of the PMMF, to achieve stable blood circulation and sufficient pedicle length. The priority skin paddle is the medial part for its stable blood supply, and the lateral margin should be adjusted as needed. During the harvesting, the lateral thoracic artery (LTA) is preserved to protect the perforating branches, and the anterior sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle is used as a suture margin to prevent damage of the thin muscle of the PMMF. The skin paddles in this study are larger than those previously reported. All of the 21 patients in our study, the skin paddles show complete survival with no partial necrosis of skin paddle, fistula, or wound dehiscence.It is worthwhile to consider and preserve the LTA as a major contributor to a lateral and distal PMMF. This study would be useful in future and preparation of the PMMF in head and neck reconstruction.

The folded, bipaddled pectoralis major myocutaneous flap for complex oral cavity defects: Undiminished relevance in the era of free flaps

Oral cancer often presents at an advanced stage, requiring extensive resection and complex reconstruction, such as free tissue transfers, which may not be available in a remote or resource-constrained facility. The common alternative in these cases is the use of the workhorse flap, the pectoralis major myocutaneous (PMMC) flap for lining and a second regional flap for cover. The results are variable, increase operative time and cost, and may cause additional donor site morbidity.

We present a series of patients who underwent reconstruction for complex oral cavity and neck defects with a single PMMC flap with a unique design, folded or bipaddled to serve as both lining and cover. Pre- and post-operative data pertaining to patients with oral cancer who were selected to undergo bipaddled PMMC flap reconstruction in our unit between January 2017 and July 2019 were collected and analysed.

Of the 41 patients, 28 were males and 13 were females. The surgical resection involved full-thickness excision of primary tumour and involved skin (face or neck) for oral cancers. The size of skin paddle harvested ranged from 8 to 15 cm horizontally to 6 to 22 cm vertically. Usually, the distal part of the skin paddle formed the mucosal lining and the proximal formed the skin cover. Complication rates in the immediate postoperative period and on initial follow-up visits were comparable to a conventional PMMC flap.

Reconstruction of complex head and neck defects requiring mucosal lining and skin cover can be achieved with a single stage, bipaddled PMMC flap, a reliable and easily learnt alternative to technically demanding free tissue transfers. The complication rate observed in our series is remarkably low, even in females. With a proper design of the flap and appropriate orientation of the skin paddle, excellent results can be achieved with a bipaddled PMMC flap.

The use of negative pressure wound therapy in the primary setting for high-risk head and neck surgery

BACKGROUND

In head and neck surgery, dead space is typically managed by transferring a secondary pedicled flap or harvesting a larger composite flap with a muscular component. We demonstrate the novel use of prophylactic negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) to obliterate dead space and reduce possible communication between the upper aerodigestive tract and the contents of the neck.

METHODS

We present a single-institutional case series of five patients with high-risk head and neck cancer treated with NPWT after ablative and reconstructive surgery to eliminate dead space following surgical resection.

RESULTS

All patients achieved successful wound closure following NPWT, which was applied in the secondary setting to combat infection in one patient and the primary setting to prophylactically eliminate dead space in four patients.

CONCLUSION

NPWT can be used to treat unfilled dead space in the primary setting of head and neck ablative and reconstructive surgery and help to avoid wound healing problems as well as the need for secondary flap transfers.

Application of "parachute" technique for free flap reconstruction in advanced tongue cancer after ablation without lip-jaw splitting: A retrospective case study

The hemi or subtotal/total glossectomy is usually approached by lip-jaw splitting procedure for advanced tongue cancer ablation. This highly invasive procedure can cause facial disfiguration, bone malunion, and osteoradionecrosis. The aim of this study is to compare the surgical outcome in free flap tongue reconstruction between novel parachute technique in an intact jaw and the conventional lip-jaw splitting procedure after tongue cancer ablation.In this study, parachute technique was adopted for free flap inset in patients without mandibulotomy. We retrospectively reviewed patients who have received primary advanced tongue cancer resection and free flap reconstruction during April, 2008 to January, 2015. Patients were divided into 2 groups. Group A was undergoing parachute technique without lip-jaw splitting. We sutured all the strings through the edges of defect in the first step and through the matching points of flap margin in the second step from outside the oral cavity. Then, the strings were pulled and the flap was parachuted down on the defects after all the matching points were tied together. In group B, the patients received conventional lip-jaw splitting procedure. Student t test was used for results analysis.There were 15 patients (n = 15) in group A and 15 patients (n = 15) in group B. In the patients receiving parachute technique, operation time showed 34 minutes (P = .49) shorter, hospital stay showed 4 days (P = .32) shorter, and the infection rate of surgical site showed 6.6% (P = .64) less than with conventional technique. The survival rates of the flaps were both 100% without revision.The parachute technique is an effective and more accessible method for free flap setting in cases of tongue reconstruction without lip-jaw splitting, and provides patients with better aesthetic appearance.

Pectoralis Major Musculocutaneous Flap With a Midline Sternal Skin Paddle for Head and Neck Reconstruction: A New Design

PURPOSE

The pectoralis major musculocutaneous (PMMC) flap is a classic flap for head and neck reconstruction, relatively unpopular with the advancement of microsurgery and free flaps. The classic parasternal paddle design provided a thick flap with a small rotation arch leaving objectionable scarring. Our new symmetric midsternal design overcomes these problems.

METHODS

Chart review was done from the years 2000 to 2017. Flap skin paddle was placed symmetrically on both sides of the midsternal line. The pectoralis major (PM) muscle and aponeurosis were attached in the lateral half of the skin paddle. Most of PM muscle was elevated with the thoracoacromial vessel and dissected to the main trunk, where the PM muscle was cut and used for bulk. The flap was transferred to the neck and lower mandibular area. The flap was inset either supraclavicularly, covering the anterior neck, or subclavicularly, for intraoral/maxillary defects.

RESULTS

Eight patients underwent head and neck reconstruction using the new design of PMMC flap between the years 2000 and 2017. The etiologies of the defect were radiation necrosis in 3 patients, repair of cutaneous fistulas in 3, recurrent hypopharyngeal cancer in 1, and recurrent tongue cancer in 1 patient. There were no flap losses or major complications.

CONCLUSIONS

With the advancement of free-flap techniques, the classic flaps have become less popular. Our new design supplements the PMMC flap by providing a thin pliable flap with a long pedicle and rotation arc, allowing a combination of different types of flaps to cover composite head and neck defects, especially in cases that lack a reliable recipient vessel due to radiation.

[Research progress of pedicled flaps for defect repair and reconstruction after head and neck tumor resection]

Objective

To summarize the current status of pedicled flaps for defect repair and reconstruction after head and neck tumor resection, and to present its application prospects.

Methods

Related literature was reviewed, and the role evolution of pedicled flaps in the reconstruction of head and neck defects were discussed. The advance, anatomical basis, indications, advantages, disadvantages, and modification of several frequently used pedicled flaps were summarized.

Results

The evolution of pedicled flaps application showed a resurgence trend in recent years. Some new pedicled flaps, e.g., submental artery island flap, supraclavicular artery island flap, submandibular gland flap, and facial artery musculomucosal flap, can acquire equivalent or even superior outcome to free flaps in certain cases. Technological modification of some traditional pedicled flaps, e.g., nasolabial flap, pectoralis major myocutaneous flap, latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap, temporalis myofascial flap, and temporoparietal fascial flap, can further broaden their indications. These traditional flaps still occupy an irreplaceable role, especially in patients with poor condition and institution with immature microsurgical techniques.

Conclusion

The pedicled flaps still plays an important role in head and neck reconstruction after tumor resection. In certain cases, they demonstrate some advantages over free flaps, e.g., more convenient harvest, more rapid recovery, less expenditure, and better functional and aesthetic effect.

Comparison of outcomes with extensive segmental pectoralis major myocutaneous flap via the anterior axillary line and the conventional technique in oral and oropharyngeal cancer

BACKGROUND

This study compared the outcomes of an extensive segmental pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (esPMMF) and a conventional pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF).

METHODS

The study enrolled 91 patients with primary oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) who underwent radical resection followed by reconstruction of the defect using either an esPMMF via the anterior axillary line or a PMMF. The pedicle lengths of the esPMMF and PMMF were 22-28 and 18-22 cm, respectively. The esPMMF and PMMF had skin paddle dimensions of 5 × 8 to 7 × 14 cm and 6 × 7 to 8 × 17 cm, respectively.

RESULTS

The esPMMF pedicle was longer than that of the PMMF. The range of shoulder abduction was significantly greater in the esPMMF group and the donor-site aesthetic results were better.

CONCLUSION

The esPMMF has a longer pedicle flap, enables a greater range of shoulder abduction, and has a better aesthetic result than the conventional technique.

Surgical Site Infections after Tissue Flaps Performed in Low- and Middle-Human Development Index Countries: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Surgical site infections (SSIs) affect the safety of surgical care and are particularly problematic and prevalent in low and middle Human Development Index Countries (LMHDICs).

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of the existing literature on SSIs after tissue flap procedures in LMHDICs through the PubMed, Ovid, and Web of Science databases. Of the 405 abstracts identified, 79 were selected for full text review, and 30 studies met inclusion criteria for analysis.

RESULTS

In the pooled analysis, the SSI rate was 5.8 infections per 100 flap procedures (95% confidence interval [CI] 2%-10%, range: 0-40%). The most common indication for tissue flap was pilonidal sinus repair, which had a pooled SSI rate of 5.6 infections per 100 flap procedures (95% CI 2%-10%, range: 0-15%). No fatalities from an infection were noted. The reporting of infection epidemiology, prevention, and treatment was poor, with few studies reporting antibiotic agent use (37%), responsible pathogens (13%), infection comorbidities (13%), or time to infection (7%); none reported cost.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review highlights the need for more work to develop standardized hospital-based reporting for surgical outcomes and complications, as well as future studies by large, multi-national groups to establish baseline incidence rates for SSIs and best practice guidelines to monitor SSI rates.

Pectoralis Major Myocutaneous Flap for Head and Neck Defects in the Era of Free Flaps: Harvesting Technique and Indications

The role of the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF) in head and neck reconstruction is challenged recently due to its natural drawbacks and the popularity of free flaps. This study was designed to evaluate the indications and reliability of using a PMMF in the current free flap era based on a single center experience. The PMMF was harvested as a pedicle-skeletonized flap, with its skin paddle caudally and medially to the areola, including the third intercostal perforator, preserving the upper one third of the pectoralis major muscle. The harvested flap was passed via a submuscular tunnel over the clavicle. One hundred eighteen PMMFs were used in 114 patients, of which 76 were high-risk candidates for a free flap; 8 patients underwent total glossectomy, and 30 underwent salvage or emergency reconstruction. Major complications occurred in 4 patients and minor complications developed in 10. Tracheal extubation was possible in all cases, while oral intake was possible in all but 1 case. These techniques used in harvesting a PMMF significantly overcome its natural pitfalls. PMMFs can safely be used in head and neck cancer patients who need salvage reconstruction, who are high risk for free flaps, and who need large volume soft-tissue flaps.

Preservation of Aesthetics of Breast in Pectoralis Major Myocutaneous Flap Donor Site in Females

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In females, raising a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap is challenging and primary closure of flap donor site causes breast deformity with medial displacement of nipple areola complex. To avoid this distortion, a new method of donor site closure is devised.

METHODS

A parasternal skin paddle which has better vascularity is planned while doing a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap in females and a lateral flap planned along the lateral breast curve is used to cover the donor site. The lateral flap donor site is primarily closed. This prevents medial displacement of nipple areola complex.

RESULTS

A total of 47 patients underwent donor site flap closure technique. Minor complications in form of marginal necrosis near the tip of the flap were observed in 10.6 % patients. The donor breast of all these PMMC flaps had good contour and aesthetic positioning of nipple areola complex.

CONCLUSION

Donor site morbidity with respect to breast distortion has not been studied so far in case of females so our study stands unique in this aspect. Using this technique of planning PMMC in females ensures a skin paddle of better vascularity and restores the breast aesthetics.

Case Reports of Two Unusual Donor Site Complications of the Pectoralis Major Myocutaneous Flap and Literature Review

The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF), once considered a workhorse flap for head and neck reconstruction, is still used for a wide range of head and neck reconstruction in the era of microvascular free tissue transfer flap (MFTF) for many reasons including low donor site morbidity. Numerous studies have reported the flap-related complications of PMMF in depth but have seldom discussed the donor site complications in detail. This article reports 2 unusual donor site complications and reviews the published data on general donor site complications resulting from PMMF use.

Regional Myocutaneous Flaps for Head and Neck Reconstruction: Experience of a Head and Neck Cancer Unit

Background:

Pectoralis major myocutaneous pedicle flap and other regional myocutaneous pedicle flaps (RMF), despite the superiority shown by free flaps, have remained relevant in the reconstruction of major head and neck oncologic defects. It has continued to find relevance as the preferred reconstruction of choice in some general head and neck reconstructive applications. While its role has been defined in developed environment, the same cannot be said for developing environment. The aim thus, was to review our experiences with RMFs in head and neck reconstructions, with a view to evaluating the indications and outcomes in a limited opportunity environment with some free flaps expertise.

Materials and Methods:

This was a retrospective cohort study from records of RMF cases performed for head and neck reconstruction, at the study institution. Eligibility for study inclusion comprised case cohorts with advanced head and neck diseases requiring ablative surgery and reconstruction with pectoralis major flaps and other RMFs.

Results:

A total of 17 cases were treated with RMFs. 10 were pectoralis major flaps while 7 were other RMFs. The main indications were failed free flaps and financial constraints. No regional pedicle flap failure was recorded; however, complication rate was 35.5% (6/17).

Conclusion:

Pectoralis major flaps and other RMFs were very reliable option for head and neck reconstruction. Free flap failure and financial constraints were the main indications for RMF reconstruction indications in head and neck reconstruction in a developing environment with some free flap expertise.

Does pectoralis major flap harvesting induce upper extremity dysfunction?

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of pectoralis major myocutaneous (PMM) flap reconstruction on upper extremity dysfunction.

METHODS

Patients undergoing PMM flap reconstruction following head and neck cancer resection were enrolled. The control group comprised age-, sex- and clinical characteristic-matched patients undergoing non-PMM flap reconstruction. All patients completed the Disability of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) questionnaire preoperatively and >1 year postoperatively.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference between pre- and postoperative DASH scores in the control group (n = 46; 2.38 ± 3.33 and 2.99 ± 4.21, respectively). In the PMM flap group (n = 46), the postoperative DASH score was significantly higher than the preoperative score (7.00 ± 9.13 and 2.44 ± 3.50, respectively). In the PMM flap group, flap size was significantly associated with postoperative DASH score.

CONCLUSION

PMM flap reconstruction has a small but significant negative effect on upper extremity dysfunction.

Extended vertical lower trapezius island myocutaneous flap versus pectoralis major myocutaneous flap for reconstruction in recurrent oral and oropharyngeal cancer

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to compare the use of an extended vertical lower trapezius island myocutaneous flap (TIMF) and a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap (PMMF).

METHODS

A total of 39 patients with advanced recurrent oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) underwent salvage surgery followed by placement of either an extended lower vertical TIMF or PMMF for reconstruction. Twenty-one patients received extended lower vertical TIMFs, whereas 18 received PMMFs.

RESULTS

The pedicle length of the TIMF was longer than that of the PMMF, and the skin paddle of the TIMF was both wider and longer than the PMMF. No major complication developed in any of the patients. The TIMF group experienced a lower rate of minor flap failure than did the PMMF group.

CONCLUSION

Use of an extended vertical lower TIMF, which has a longer pedicle flap and a larger skin paddle than a PMMF, is optimal for reconstruction of major defects. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 38: E159-E164, 2016.