The profiling and identification of the absorbed constituents and metabolites of Paeoniae Radix Rubra decoction in rat plasma and urine by the HPLC–DAD–ESI-IT-TOF-MSn technique: A novel strategy for the systematic screening and identification of absorbed constituents and metabolites from traditional Chinese medicines

Unraveling the chemical constituents, absorption characteristics, and metabolic profile of Codonopsis Radix based on UPLC-Q- Orbitrap MS

Codonopsis Radix (CR), a traditional tonic medicinal material in China, has been proven to possess a variety of bioactive functions. However, its chemical composition and in vivo metabolic pattern have not been fully elucidated. In this study, AB-8 macroporous resin column chromatography was employed for the enrichment of small molecular components in CR. Furthermore, a method combining ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry with Acquire X intelligent data acquisition technology software was developed for the preliminary screening and identification of the chemical composition of CR in vitro and their metabolites in vivo. As a result, a total of 116 components were preliminarily characterized in the CR extract, including 28 polyacetylenes, 33 organic acids, 4 amino acids, 23 alkaloids, 9 phenylpropanoids, 6 terpenoids, 2 nucleosides, and 11 others. Additionally, a total of 84 compounds, including 37 prototype components and 47 metabolites, were identified in the plasma, urine, and feces of rats after oral administration of CR. Specifically, 11, 24, 19, 32, and 25 constituents were identified in the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney, respectively. Of note, the lung and spleen are the organs with the highest distribution of CR compounds. These findings will serve as valuable data for future research on the correlation between the chemical composition and pharmacological effects of CR.

Metabolism and distribution of two major constituents of 'Xing-Nao-Jing Injection'-germacrone and curdione in rats

Germacrone and curdione are germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids that are widely distributed and have extensive pharmacological activities; they are the main constituents of 'Xing-Nao-Jing Injection' (XNJ). Studies on the metabolic features of germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids are limited. In this study, the metabolites of germacrone and curdione were characterized by UHPLC-Q-Exactive Oribitrap mass spectrometry after they were orally administered to rats. In total, 60 and 76 metabolites were found and preliminarily identified in rats administered germacrone and curdione, respectively, among which at least 123 potential new compounds were included. New metabolic reactions of germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids were identified, which included oxidation (+4 O and +5 O), ethylation, methyl-sulfinylation, vitamin C conjugation, and cysteine conjugation reactions. Among the 136 metabolites (including 113 oxidation metabolites, two glucuronidation, two methylation, nine methyl-sulfinylation, three ethylation, six cysteine conjugation, and one Vitamin C conjugation metabolites), 32 metabolites were detected in nine organs, and the stomach, intestine, liver, kidneys, and small intestine were the main organs for the distribution of these metabolites. All 136 metabolites were detected in urine and 64 of them were found in feces. The results of this study not only contribute to research on in vivo processes related to germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids but also provide a strong foundation for a better understanding of in vivo processes and the effective forms of germacrone, curdione, and XNJ.

Progress in the Study of Chemical Structure and Pharmacological Effects of Total Paeony Glycosides Isolated from Radix Paeoniae Rubra

Radix paeoniae rubra, known as red peony root, is derived from the dried roots of Paeonia lactiflora pall or Paeonia veitchii lynch from the Ranunculaceae family. It is recognized for its properties of clearing heat, cooling blood, dispelling stasis, and alleviating pain, making it one of the most commonly used herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. Total paeony glycosides (TPGs) are identified as the principal active constituents of Radix paeoniae rubra, comprising monoterpenoid compounds with a cage-like pinane structure and monoterpenoids with a lactone structure. This review summarizes the chemical constituents and pharmacological effects of TPGs, with the aim of elucidating their relationships.

20 potentially new compounds and 11 new bioactive constituents found in Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma utilizing HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MSn

INTRODUCTION

Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma (SGR) is rich in chemical constituents with a variety of pharmacological activities. However, in-depth research has yet to be conducted on the chemical and pharmacodynamic constituents of SGR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the chemical constituents of SGR were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and the pharmacodynamic compounds responsible for the medicinal effects of SGR were elucidated through a literature review.

RESULTS

In total, 20 potentially new compounds, including 16 flavonoids (C19, C20, and C27-C40) and four phenylpropanoids (C107, C112, C113, and C118), together with 161 known ones were identified in the ethanol extract of SGR using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and 25 of them were unequivocally identified by comparison with reference compounds. Moreover, 17 known constituents of them were identified in the plants of genus Smilax for the first time, and 16 were identified in the plant Smilax glabra Roxb. for the first time. Of 161 known compounds, 84 constituents (including isomers) have been reported to have 17 types of pharmacological activities, covering all known pharmacological activities of SGR; among these 84 bioactive constituents, six were found in the plants of genus Smilax for the first time and five were found in S. glabra for the first time, which are new bioactive constituents found in the plants of genus Smilax and the plant S. glabra, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results provide further information on the chemical composition of SGR, laying the foundation for the elucidation of the pharmacodynamic substances of SGR.

Integrated chemical characterization, metabolite profiling, and pharmacokinetics analysis of Zhijun Tangshen Decoction by UPLC-Q/TOF-MS

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide and a major public issue affecting the health of people. Therefore, it is essential to explore effective drugs for the treatment of DN. In this study, the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, Zhijun Tangshen Decoction (ZJTSD), a prescription modified from the classical formula Didang Decoction, has been used in the clinical treatment of DN. However, the chemical basis underlying the therapeutic effects of ZJTSD in treating DN remains unknown. In this study, compounds of ZJTSD and serum after oral administration in rats were identified and analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS). Meanwhile, a semi-quantitative approach was used to analyze the dynamic changes in the compounds of ZJTSD in vivo. UPLC-Q/TOF-MS analysis identified 190 compounds from ZJTSD, including flavonoids, anthraquinones, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, and other categories. A total of 156 xenobiotics and metabolites, i.e., 51 prototype compounds and 105 metabolites, were identified from the compounds absorbed into the blood of rats treated with ZJTSD. The results further showed that 23 substances with high relative content, long retention time, and favorable pharmacokinetic characteristics in vivo deserved further investigations and validations of bioactivities. In conclusion, this study revealed the chemical basis underlying the complexity of ZJTSD and investigated the metabolite profiling and pharmacokinetics of ZJTSD-related xenobiotics in rats, thus providing a foundation for further investigation into the pharmacodynamic substance basis and metabolic regulations of ZJTSD.

Dietary gallic acid as an antioxidant: A review of its food industry applications, health benefits, bioavailability, nano-delivery systems, and drug interactions

Gallic acid (GA), a dietary phenolic acid with potent antioxidant activity, is widely distributed in edible plants. GA has been applied in the food industry as an antimicrobial agent, food fresh-keeping agent, oil stabilizer, active food wrap material, and food processing stabilizer. GA is a potential dietary supplement due to its health benefits on various functional disorders associated with oxidative stress, including renal, neurological, hepatic, pulmonary, reproductive, and cardiovascular diseases. GA is rapidly absorbed and metabolized after oral administration, resulting in low bioavailability, which is susceptible to various factors, such as intestinal microbiota, transporters, and metabolism of galloyl derivatives. GA exhibits a tendency to distribute primarily to the kidney, liver, heart, and brain. A total of 37 metabolites of GA has been identified, and decarboxylation and dihydroxylation in phase I metabolism and sulfation, glucuronidation, and methylation in phase Ⅱ metabolism are considered the main in vivo biotransformation pathways of GA. Different types of nanocarriers, such as polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and nanodots, have been successfully developed to enhance the health-promoting function of GA by increasing bioavailability. GA may induce drug interactions with conventional drugs, such as hydroxyurea, linagliptin, and diltiazem, due to its inhibitory effects on metabolic enzymes, including cytochrome P450 3A4 and 2D6, and transporters, including P-glycoprotein, breast cancer resistance protein, and organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1B3. In conclusion, in-depth studies of GA on food industry applications, health benefits, bioavailability, nano-delivery systems, and drug interactions have laid the foundation for its comprehensive application as a food additive and dietary supplement.

Combined Metabolite Analysis and Network Pharmacology to Elucidate the Mechanisms of Therapeutic Effect of Melastoma dodecandrum Ellagitannins on Abnormal Uterine Bleeding

The abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is complex and usually leads to severe anemia. Melastomadodecandrum (MD) is clinically used for the treatment of metrorrhagia bleeding. The MD ellagitannins (MD-ETs) had been evidenced being effective at hemorrhage, and exerts biological activities upon their metabolites including ellagic acid and urolithins. In this study, the blood-permeated metabolites from theMD-ETs were analyzed using LC-MS approach, and 19 metabolites including ellagic acid and urolithin A derivatives were identified. Furthermore, a network pharmacology analysis including the target prediction analysis, AUB target analysis, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis were conducted to reveal the relationships between "metabolites-targets-pathways", which was further verified by molecular docking analysis. The results showed that methyl ellagic acid, urolithin A and isourolithin A produced from MD-ETs can be absorbed into the blood, and might act on the core targets of VEGFA, SRC, MTOR, EGFR and CCND1. And the hemostatic effects were exerted through PI3K-Akt, endocrine resistance and Rap 1 signaling pathways. These results implied the potential effective constituents and action mechanism of MD-ETs in the therapy of AUB, which will promote the application of MD-ETs as natural agent for the treatment of gynecological bleeding diseases.

Paeonia peregrina Mill Petals as a New Source of Biologically Active Compounds: Chemical Characterization and Skin Regeneration Effects of the Extracts

Paeonia peregrina Mill. is a perennial herbaceous plant species, known for the medicinal value of all of its plant parts, although the chemical composition of the petals is unknown. This study aimed to determine the chemical fingerprint of the petals and also establish the optimal extraction parameters, extraction medium, and extraction method for petals collected from different localities in Serbia. The optimization was performed in order to acquire extracts that are rich in the contents of total polyphenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), and also exhibit strong antioxidant activity. In addition, the influence of the extracts on several human skin pathogens was evaluated, as well as their ability to aid wound closure and act as anti-inflammatory agents. Both the extraction medium and the applied technique significantly influenced the skin-beneficial biological activities, while methanol proved to be a more favorable extraction medium. In conclusion, the extraction conditions that yielded the extract with the richest phenolic content with satisfactory biological potential varied between the assays, while the most promising locality in Serbia for the collection of P. peregrina petals was Pančevo (South Banat).

Chemical profiling of Sanjin tablets and exploration of their effective substances and mechanism in the treatment of urinary tract infections

Introduction: Sanjin tablets (SJT) are a well-known Chinese patent drug that have been used to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) for the last 40 years. The drug consists of five herbs, but only 32 compounds have been identified, which hinders the clarification of its effective substances and mechanism. Methods: The chemical constituents of SJT and their effective substances and functional mechanism involved in the treatment of UTIs were investigated by using high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-ion trap-time of flight-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-IT-TOF-MSⁿ), network pharmacology, and molecular docking. Results: A total of 196 compounds of SJT (SJT-MS) were identified, and 44 of them were unequivocally identified by comparison with the reference compounds. Among 196 compounds, 13 were potential new compounds and 183 were known compounds. Among the 183 known compounds, 169 were newly discovered constituents of SJT, and 93 compounds were not reported in the five constituent herbs. Through the network pharmacology method, 119 targets related to UTIs of 183 known compounds were predicted, and 20 core targets were screened out. Based on the "compound-target" relationship analysis, 94 compounds were found to act on the 20 core targets and were therefore regarded as potential effective compounds. According to the literature, 27 of the 183 known compounds were found to possess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities and were verified as effective substances, of which 20 were first discovered in SJT. Twelve of the 27 effective substances overlapped with the 94 potential effective compounds and were determined as key effective substances of SJT. The molecular docking results showed that the 12 key effective substances and 10 selected targets of the core targets have good affinity for each other. Discussion: These results provide a solid foundation for understanding the effective substances and mechanism of SJT.

Screening and characterization of xenobiotics in rat bio-samples after oral administration of Shen-Wu-Yi-Shen tablet using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS combined with a targeted and non-targeted strategy

Shen-Wu-Yi-Shen tablet (SWYST), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine prescription (TCMP), has been effectively used for treating chronic kidney disease (CKD) in clinically. However, an in-depth study of in vivo metabolism of SWYST is lacking. In this study, a targeted and non-targeted strategy based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) was developed to screen and characterize SWYST-related xenobiotics in rats. Based on the in-house library, a chemical database of SWYST including 215 constituents was constructed through "find by formula" and further verified by characteristic fragmentations or the literatures. Then the constructed chemical database was applied for the targeted screening of prototypes. As for metabolites, the non-targeted screening was achieved combined the peak picking using the function "find by auto-MS/MS" and peak filtration of the prototypes and endogenous components, while the targeted screening was performed using Metabolite ID according to the possible metabolic reactions. Furthermore, the potential metabolites were preliminarily identified by comparison of the parent compounds or references to the literatures. As a result, 201 exogenous components (87 prototypes and 121 metabolites) were characterized in rats after administration of SWYST, including 55 (17 prototypes and 38 metabolites) in plasma, 151 (52 prototypes and 99 metabolites) in urine, and 121 (74 prototypes and 47 metabolites) in feces. Finally, their possible metabolic pathways were summarized, and the metabolic reactions mainly involved phase I reactions (hydroxylation, deoxygenation, hydrogenation, methylation, oxidation, hydrolysis and esterification) and phase II reactions (glucuronidation and sulfation). The findings of this research reveal the potential active ingredients of SWYST, providing an important material basis for the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of SWYST.

Rapid Profiling of Metabolites Combined with Network Pharmacology to Explore the Potential Mechanism of Sanguisorba officinalis L. against Thrombocytopenia

Sanguisorba officinalis L. (SO), a well-known herbal medicine, has been proven to show effect against thrombocytopenia. However, metabolites of SO in vivo are still unclear, and the underlying mechanism of SO against thrombocytopenia from the aspect of metabolites have not been well elucidated. In this study, an improved analytical method combined with UHPLC-QTOF MS and a molecular network was developed for the rapid characterization of metabolites in vivo based on fragmentation patterns. Then, network pharmacology (NP) was used to elucidate the potential mechanism of SO against thrombocytopenia. As a result, a total of 1678 exogenous metabolites were detected in urine, feces, plasma, and bone marrow, in which 104 metabolites were tentatively characterized. These characterized metabolites that originated from plasma, urine, and feces were then imported to the NP analysis. The results showed that the metabolites from plasma, urine, and feces could be responsible for the pharmacological activity against thrombocytopenia by regulating the PI3K-Akt, MAPK, JAK-STAT, VEGF, chemokine, actin cytoskeleton, HIF-1, and pluripotency of stem cells. This study provides a rapid method for metabolite characterization and a new perspective of underlying mechanism study from the aspect of active metabolites in vivo.

Analysis of In Vivo Existence Forms of Nardosinone in Mice by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS Technique

Nardosinone, a sesquiterpene peroxide, is one of the main active constituents of the ethnomedicine Nardostachyos Radix et Rhizoma, and it has many bioactivities, such as antiarrhythmia and cardioprotection. To elucidate its in vivo existence forms, its metabolism is first studied using mice. All urine and feces are collected during the six days of oral dosing of nardosinone, and blood is collected at one hour after the last dose. Besides, to validate some metabolites, a fast experiment is performed, in which nardosinone was orally administered and the subsequent one-hour urine is collected and immediately analyzed by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS. In total, 76 new metabolites are identified in this study, including 39, 51, and 12 metabolites in urine, plasma, and feces, respectively. Nardosinone can be converted into nardosinone acid or its isomers. The metabolic reactions of nardosinone included hydroxylation, hydrogenation, dehydration, glucuronidation, sulfation, demethylation, and carboxylation. There are 56 and 20 metabolites with the structural skeleton of nardosinone and nardosinone acid, respectively. In total, 77 in vivo existence forms of nardosinone are found in mice. Nardosinone is mainly excreted in urine and is not detected in the feces. These findings will lay the foundation for further research of the in vivo effective forms of nardosinone and Nardostachyos Radix et Rhizoma.

Paeoniae Radix Rubra can enhance fatty acid β-oxidation and alleviate gut microbiota disorder in α-naphthyl isothiocyanate induced cholestatic model rats

Cholestasis is the most destructive pathological manifestation of liver disease and available treatments are very limited. Paeoniae Radix Rubra (PRR) is an important traditional Chinese drug used to treat cholestasis. This study combined targeted metabonomics, PCR array analysis, and 16S rRNA sequencing analysis to further clarify the mechanisms of PRR in the treatment of cholestasis. PRR conspicuously reversed the elevation of fatty acids (FFA 14:0 and other 14 fatty acids) and the decrease of organic acids (pyruvic acid and citric acid) in a cholestatic model induced by α-naphthyl isothiocyanate (ANIT). Eight elevated amino acids (L-proline, etc.) and five elevated secondary bile acids (taurohyodeoxycholic acid, etc.) in model rats were also reduced by PRR. Pathway analysis revealed that PRR significantly alleviated eight pathways (β-alanine metabolism). Furthermore, we found that PRR significantly reversed the decrease of Cpt1a, Hadha, Ppara, and Slc25a20 (four genes relevant to fatty acid β-oxidation) mRNAs caused by ANIT, and PRR conspicuously decreased nine acylcarnitines (the forms of fatty acids into mitochondria for β-oxidation) that increased in model rats. These results indicate that PRR could enhance fatty acid β-oxidation, which may be the way for PRR to reduce the levels of 15 fatty acids in the serum of model rats. 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that PRR alleviated gut microbiota disorders in model rats, including upregulating four genera (Coprococcus, Lactobacillus, etc.) and downregulating four genera (Bacteroides, Escherichia, etc.). As the relative abundance of these eight genera was significantly correlated with the levels of the five secondary bile acids (deoxycholic acid, taurolithocholic acid, etc.) reduced by PRR, and Bacteroides and Escherichia were reported to promote the production of secondary bile acid, we inferred that the downregulation of PRR on five secondary bile acids in model rats was inseparable from gut microbiota. Thus, the gut microbiota also might be a potential pharmacological target for the anticholestatic activity of PRR. In conclusion, we consider that the mechanisms of PRR in treating cholestasis include enhancing fatty acid β-oxidation and alleviating gut microbiota disorders.

Metabolism of Paeoniae Radix Rubra and its 14 constituents in mice

Objective: Paeoniae Radix Rubra (PRR) is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine with the effects of clearing away heat, cooling the blood, and relieving blood stasis. To 1) elucidate the metabolites and metabolic pathways of PRR and its 14 main constituents in mice and 2) reveal the possible origins of the known effective forms of PRR and their isomers, the metabolism of PRR in mice was systematically studied for the first time.

Methods: PRR and its 14 constituents were administered to mice by gavage once a day for seven consecutive days, respectively. All urine and feces were collected during the 7 days of dosing, and blood was collected at 1 h after the last dose. Metabolites were detected and identified using high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector and combined with electrospray ionization ion trap time-of-flight multistage mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MSⁿ).

Results: In total, 23, 16, 24, 17, 18, 30, 27, 17, 22, 17, 33, 3, 8, 24, and 31 metabolites of paeoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, hydroxybenzoylpaeoniflorin, benzoyloxypaeoniflorin, galloylpaeoniflorin, lactiflorin, epicatechin gallate, catechin gallate, catechin, ellagic acid, 3,3′-di-O-methylellagic acid, methylgallate, and PRR were respectively identified in mice; after eliminating identical metabolites, a total of 195 metabolites remained, including 8, 11, 25, 17, 18, 30, 27, 17, 21, 17, 1, 2, 8, 20, and 20 newly identified metabolites, respectively. The metabolic reactions of PRR and its 14 main constituents in mice were primarily methylation, hydrogenation, hydrolysis, hydroxylation, glucuronidation, and sulfation.

Conclusion: We elucidated the metabolites and metabolic pathways of PRR and its 14 constituents (e.g., paeoniflorin, catechin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid) in mice and revealed the possible origins of the 10 known effective forms of PRR and their isomers. The findings are of great significance to studying the mechanism of action and quality control of PRR.

Rapid analysis of components in Qizhiweitong tablets and plasma after oral administration in rats by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS based on self-developed database

Qizhiweitong is a famous traditional Chinese prescription medicine. It has been used to treat various stomach disorders, such as functional dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, and intestinal stress syndrome for a long time and gives favorable therapeutic effects in clinical settings. However, its chemical composition and possible bioactive components are not completely known. In the present study, we used ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) and qualitatively analyzed the chemical composition of Qizhiweitong tablet extract and the absorbed prototype constituents along with corresponding metabolites in rat plasma following oral administration of Qizhiweitong tablet on the basis of our self-developed component database that was established accurately and rapidly. We detected a total of 119 compounds and 61 xenobiotics in the Qizhiweitong tablet, which included 32 prototypes and 28 metabolites. The results of the present study laid a solid foundation for quality marker screening and integrative pharmacology-based study on the Qizhiweitong tablet.

Explore the Potential Ingredients for Detoxification of Honey-Fired Licorice (ZGC) Based on the Metabolic Profile by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Licorice is well known for its ability to reduce the toxicity of the whole prescription in traditional Chinese medicine theory. However, honey-fired licorice (ZGC for short), which is made of licorice after being stir-fried with honey water, is more commonly used for clinical practice. The metabolism in vivo and detoxification-related compounds of ZGC have not been fully elucidated. In this work, the chemical constituents in ZGC and its metabolic profile in rats were both identified by high ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). The network pharmacology was applied to predict the potential detoxifying ingredients of ZGC. As a result, a total of 115 chemical compounds were identified or tentatively characterized in ZGC aqueous extract, and 232 xenobiotics (70 prototypes and 162 metabolites) were identified in serum, heart, liver, kidneys, feces, and urine. Furthermore, 41 compounds absorbed in serum, heart, liver, and kidneys were employed for exploring the detoxification of ZGC by network pharmacology. Ultimately, 13 compounds (five prototypes including P5, P24, P30, P41 and P44, and 8 phase Ⅰ metabolites including M23, M47, M53, M93, M100, M106, M118, and M134) and nine targets were anticipated to be potential mediums regulating detoxification actions. The network pharmacology analysis had shown that the ZGC could detoxify mainly through regulating the related targets of cytochrome P450 and glutathione. In summary, this study would help reveal potential active ingredients in vivo for detoxification of ZGC and provided practical evidence for explaining the theory of traditional Chinese medicine with modern technology.

An integrated strategy to reveal the potential anti-asthma mechanism of peimine by metabolite profiling, network pharmacology, and molecular docking

Peimine, one of the major quality markers in Fritillaria Cirrhosae Bulbus, was expected to become a new anti-asthma drug. However, its metabolic profiles and anti-asthma mechanism have not been clarified previously. In this study, a method was developed for the detection of peimine metabolites in vitro by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The potential anti-asthma mechanism was predicted by an integrated analysis of network pharmacology and molecular docking. A total of 19 metabolites were identified with the aid of software and molecular networking. The metabolic profiles of peimine elucidated that the metabolism was a multi-pathway process with characteristics of species difference. The network pharmacology results showed that peimine and its metabolites could regulate multiple asthma-related targets. The above targets were involved in various regulatory pathways linked to asthma. Moreover, the results of molecular docking showed that both peimine and its metabolites had a certain affinity with the β₂ adrenergic receptor. The results provided not only important references to understand the metabolism and pharmacodynamic changes of peimine in vitro, but also supporting data for further pharmacological evaluation. It also provided a new perspective for clarifying the functional changes of traditional Chinese medicine in vitro.

The chemical and metabolite profiles of Gualou-Xiebai-Banxia decoction, a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula, by using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and in-house software

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gualou-Xiebai-Banxia decoction (GXBD) was a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula for the treatment of coronary heart disease. However, the current study on the chemical and metabolite profiles of GXBD did not follow the ancient prescription and extraction method, which hindered the discovery of effective compounds and quality control.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we prepared GXBD by ancient prescription and extraction methods, and then analysed the chemical components and xenobiotics of GXBD in vivo using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and in-house software.

RESULTS

49 chemical constituents were preliminarily identified, including 7 terpenoids, 6 flavonoids, 5 alkaloids, 17 organic acids, 8 steroids and steroidal saponins, 2 nucleosides and 4 other types of compounds, of which 10 constituents were confirmed unambiguously with authentic standards. Moreover, 129 metabolites were tentatively identified, including 83 metabolites in plasma, 39 metabolites in urine, 25 metabolites in bile and 9 metabolites in feces. Our study speculated that luteolin, adenosine, vanillic acid and curbitacin B might be possible effective components of GXBD for the treatment of coronary heart disease. Dehydration, deglycosylation, dehydrogenation, acetylation and taurine regulation were the main biotransformation reactions of GXBD.

CONCLUSION

Our results provided an important basis for the discovery of effective compounds and quality control of GXBD. In addition, in-house software was an useful tool for identifcation of metabolites.

Occurrence, detection and ecotoxicity studies of selected pharmaceuticals in aqueous ecosystems- a systematic appraisal

Pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) have globally emerged as a significant group of environmental contaminants due to the constant detection of their residues in the environment. The main scope of this review is to fill the void of information on the knowledge on the African occurrence of selected PCs in environmental matrices in comparison with those outside Africa and their respective toxic actions on both aquatic and non-aquatic biota through ecotoxicity bioassays. To achieve this objective, the study focused on commonly used and detected pharmaceutical drugs (residues). Based on the conducted literature survey, Africa has the highest levels of ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, lamivudine, acetaminophen, and diclofenac while Europe has the lowest of all these PC residues in her physical environments. For ecotoxicity bioassays, the few data available are mostly on individual groups of pharmaceuticals whereas there is sparsely available data on their combined forms.

Development of Mini-Barcode Based on Chloroplast Genome and Its Application in Metabarcoding Molecular Identification of Chinese Medicinal Material Radix Paeoniae Rubra (Chishao)

Radix Paeoniae Rubra (Chishao), a typical multi-origin Chinese medicinal material, originates from the dried roots of Paeonia lactiflora or P. veitchii. The previous study suggested that these two commonly used Chishao showed variation in their chemical compositions and clinical efficacies. Therefore, accurate identification of different Chishao species was of great significance for the guide of clinical medication, and timely treatment of patients. In this study, the chloroplast genome sequences of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii were obtained by next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, and then the hypervariable regions were selected to design two mini-barcode candidates for species identification. Combined with DNA metabarcoding technology, we performed qualitative and quantitative analysis on the artificially mixed samples of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii and evaluated the identification ability of these mini-barcode candidates. Furtherly, the mini-barcode with good performance was applied to distinguish the Chinese patent medicine "cerebral thrombosis tablets" containing Chishao. The results indicated that the chloroplast genomes of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii were 152,750 and 152,527 bp, respectively. As published previously, they exhibited a typical quadripartite structure including a large single-copy region (LSC), a small single-copy region (SSC) and a pair of inverted repeat regions (IRs). The nucleotide polymorphism analysis revealed seven variable protein-coding regions as petL, psaI, psbJ, rpl16, ycf1b, psaC, and ndhF, and two mini-barcodes were developed from ycf1b and ndhF respectively. The result suggested that both two mini-barcodes performed well distinguishing P. lactiflora from P. veitchii. Besides, P. lactiflora was the only raw material of Chishao in all collected "cerebral thrombosis tablets" samples. In general, this study has established a method to realize the qualitative and quantitative identification of Chishao as multi-origin Chinese medicinal materials, which can be applied to Chinese patent medicines containing Chishao.

Elucidation of the Mechanisms and Effective Substances of Paeoniae Radix Rubra Against Toxic Heat and Blood Stasis Syndrome With a Stage-Oriented Strategy

In the clinical practice of traditional Chinese medicine, toxic heat and blood stasis syndrome (THBSS) is a common syndrome observed in various critical diseases. Paeoniae Radix Rubra (PRR) has known therapeutic effects on THBSS. However, its pharmacodynamic mechanisms and effective substances in the treatment of THBSS still need further elucidation. Our previous study indicated that THBSS had three stages of progression, and the abnormal biochemical indices of each stage were different. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the pharmacodynamic mechanisms and effective substances of PRR for the treatment of THBSS with a stage-oriented strategy. Specifically, research was performed separately in two stable stages of THBSS: the excessive heat and little blood stasis (EHLBS) and blood stasis (BS) stages. THBSS model rats, at different time periods after syndrome initiation (first 5 h for EHLBS and 24 h later for BS), were used to conduct the two-stage investigation. Targeted metabonomics analysis was performed to elucidate the pharmacodynamic mechanisms of PRR in the treatment of EHLBS or BS. Based on the relationship between the individual differences in blood drug concentrations and pharmacodynamic effects, partial least squares regression analysis was employed to screen for the effective substances from the original constituents and metabolites of PRR. We found that PRR could upregulate primary bile acid biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, ether lipid metabolism, and five amino acid metabolic pathways (e.g., arginine and proline metabolism) to treat EHLBS. Meanwhile, PRR alleviated BS by upregulating primary bile acid biosynthesis and downregulating glycerophospholipid metabolism. But PRR had no obvious effects on ether lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism in this stage. In total, 17 and 9 potential effective substances were found in the EHLBS and BS stages, respectively, among which there were only five common compounds between the two stages. To our knowledge, sixteen compounds were regarded as potential effective substances of PRR for the first time. Therefore, the pharmacodynamic mechanisms and effective substances of PRR in the treatment of EHLBS and BS were partly different. Overall, this stage-oriented strategy provides a new way to study the pharmacodynamic mechanisms and effective substances of traditional Chinese drugs.

Qing-Xue-Xiao-Zhi formula attenuates atherosclerosis by inhibiting macrophage lipid accumulation and inflammatory response via TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway regulation

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is a progressive chronic disease characterised by aberrant lipid metabolism and a maladaptive inflammatory response. As atherosclerosis-driven cardiovascular disease remains the major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, more effective clinical therapies are urgently needed. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has demonstrated efficacy against atherosclerosis, with Qing-Xue-Xiao-Zhi formula (QXXZF) having been approved for clinical treatment of patients with atherosclerosis. However, the mechanisms underlying the anti-atherosclerotic activity of QXXZF remain unknown.

PURPOSE

To investigate the anti-atherosclerotic effect of QXXZF and reveal its mechanisms using preclinical models.

METHODS

In vivo, apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE^-/-) mice were fed a high-fat and high-choline diet (HHD) to induce atherosclerosis. Serum metabolomic profiling was used to identify the concentration of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) in mice. In vitro, RAW264.7 macrophages and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from WT and TLR4^-/- C57BL/6 mice were used to explore the effects of QXXZF on macrophages. After confirming the therapeutic effects of QXXZF, mass spectrometry and network pharmacology analyses were used to predict and investigate the main components and the anti-atherogenic mechanisms of QXXZF in the context of atherosclerosis.

RESULTS

Our results showed QXXZF significantly suppressed the development of atherosclerosis, as evidenced by the decreased atherosclerotic plaques in the aorta and aortic root, reduced plasma lipid levels and decreased serum TMAO content in HHD-fed ApoE^-/- mice. Meanwhile, QXXZF effectively reduced foam cell formation in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and TMAO-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and BMDMs. Moreover, QXXZF facilitated reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) in macrophages by upregulating the expression of cholesterol efflux-related genes PPARγ/LXRα/ABCA1/ABCG1. Mechanistic studies revealed that QXXZF influenced cholesterol metabolism by inhibiting the TLR4-mediated nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) axis. Importantly, TLR4 knockout abolished the influence of QXXZF on macrophages.

CONCLUSION

QXXZF promotes lipid efflux and inhibits macrophage-mediated inflammation, producing a therapeutic effect against atherosclerosis. Our study provides new insight into the mechanism of QXXZF against atherosclerosis.

Chemicalome and metabolome profiling of Chai-Gui Decoction using an integrated strategy based on UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis

Traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions are widely believed to exert therapeutic benefits via a multiple-component and multiple-target mode. The systemic profiling of their in vitro chemicalome and in vivo metabolome is of great importance for further understanding their clinical value. Herein, an integrated strategy using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry was proposed to profile the chemicalome and metabolome of Chai-Gui Decoction. Particularly, an approach combined mass defect filter, characteristic product ion filter, and neutral loss filter was adopted to identify metabolites in plasma, urine, bile, and feces by MetabolitePilot. Consequently, a total of 174 constituents were identified or tentatively characterized and 70 metabolites that related to 21 representative structural components were matched in rat biofluids. Among them, 19 prototypes and 7 metabolites that contributed to flavonoids, monoterpenes, and phenylpropanoids were detected distribution in brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung or spleen. This study provided a generally applicable approach to comprehensive investigation on chemicalome and metabolome of traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions, and offered reasonable guidelines for further screening of quality control indicators of Chai-Gui Decoction.

Qualitative Analysis and Componential Differences of Chemical Constituents in Taxilli Herba from Different Hosts by UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS

Taxilli Herba (TH) is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with a wide range of clinical application. However, there is a lack of comprehensive research on its chemical composition in recent years. At the same time, Taxillus chinensis (DC) Danser is a semi parasitic plant with abundant hosts, and its chemical constituents varies due to hosts. In this study, the characterization of chemical constituents in TH was analyzed by ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole-time of flight tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS). Moreover, partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was applied to reveal the differential constituents in TH from different hosts based on the qualitative information of the chemical constituents. Results showed that 73 constituents in TH were identified or tentatively presumed, including flavonoids, phenolic acids and glycosides, and others; meanwhile, the fragmentation pathways of different types of compounds were preliminarily deduced by the fragmentation behavior of the major constituents. In addition, 23 differential characteristic constituents were screened based on variable importance in projection (VIP) and p-value. Among them, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronide, quercitrin and hyperoside were common differential constituents. Our research will contribute to comprehensive evaluation and intrinsic quality control of TH, and provide a scientific basis for the variety identification of medicinal materials from different hosts.

Cleavage rules of mass spectrometry fragments and rapid identification of chemical components of Radix Paeoniae Alba using UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS

INTRODUCTION

Radix Paeoniae Alba (RPA) presents several pharmacological effects, including analgesia, liver protection, and toxicity reduction. RPA consists mostly of monoterpenes and their glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, and organic acids, with monoterpenes being the main active pharmaceutical ingredients.

OBJECTIVE

To establish an effective method for rapid classification and identification of the main monoterpenes, flavonoids, and organic acids in RPA.

METHODS

We used ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS) and data post-processing technology to rapidly classify and identify the monoterpenoids, flavonoids, and organic acids in RPA. We also summarised the diagnostic product ions and neutral losses of monoterpenoids, flavonoids, and organic acids in RPA reported in the literature.

RESULTS

We identified 24 components, namely 18 monoterpenoids, one flavonoid, and five organic acids.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we analysed the chemically active pharmaceutical ingredients and assessed the quality of RPA. In addition, we demonstrated that UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS can be used to qualitatively classify and identify the variety of chemical components of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) to a certain extent. Moreover, we confirmed that mass spectrometry can be used to identify the components of TCMs.

Chemical profiling of Huashi Baidu prescription, an effective anti-COVID-19 TCM formula, by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS

Huashi Baidu prescription (HSBDF), recommended in the Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Pneumonia (On Trials, the Seventh Edition), was clinically used to treat severe corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) with cough, blood-stained sputum, inhibited defecation, red tongue etc. symptoms. This study was aimed to elucidate and profile the knowledge on its chemical constituents and the potential anti-inflammatory effect in vitro. In the study, the chemical constituents in extract of HSBDF were characterized by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS in both negative and positive modes, and the pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) to determine the effects of HSBDF in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The results showed that a total of 217 chemical constituents were tentativedly characterized in HSBDF. Moreover, HSBDF could alleviate the expression levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in the cell models, indicating that the antiviral effects of HSBDF might be associated with regulation of the inflammatory cytokines production in RAW264.7 cells. We hope that the results could be served as the basic data for further study of HSBDF on anti-COVID-19 effect.

Combination of UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and Network Pharmacology to Reveal the Mechanism of Qizhen Decoction in the Treatment of Colon Cancer

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been utilized for the treatment of colon cancer. Qizhen decoction (QZD), a potential compound prescription of TCM, possesses multiple biological activities. It has been proven clinically effective in the treatment of colon cancer. However, the molecular mechanism of anticolon cancer activity is still not clear. This study aimed to identify the chemical composition of QZD. Furthermore, a collaborative analysis strategy of network pharmacology and cell biology was used to further explore the critical signaling pathway of QZD anticancer activity. First, ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) was performed to identify the chemical composition of QZD. Then, the chemical composition database of QZD was constructed based on a systematic literature search and review of chemical constituents. Moreover, the common and indirect targets of chemical components of QZD and colon cancer were searched by multiple databases. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using the String database (https://www.string-db.org/). All of the targets were analyzed by Gene Oncology (GO) bioanalysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis, and the visual network topology diagram of "Prescription-TCM-Chemical composition-Direct target-Indirect target-Pathway" was constructed by Cytoscape software (v3.7.1). The top molecular pathway ranked by statistical significance was further verified by molecular biology methods. The results of UPLC-Q-TOF/MS showed that QZD had 111 kinds of chemical components, of which 103 were unique components and 8 were common components. Ten pivotal targets of QZD in the treatment of colon cancer were screened by the PPI network. Targets of QZD involve many biological processes, such as the signaling pathway, immune system, gene expression, and so on. QZD may interfere with biological pathways such as cell replication, oxygen-containing compounds, or organic matter by protein binding, regulation of signal receptors or enzyme binding, and affect cytoplasm and membrane-bound organelles. The main antitumor core pathways were the apoptosis metabolic pathway, the PI3K-Akt signal pathway, and so on. Expression of the PI3K-Akt signal pathway was significantly downregulated after the intervention of QZD, which was closely related to the inhibition of proliferation and migration of colon cancer cells by cell biology methods. The present work may facilitate a better understanding of the effective components, therapeutic targets, biological processes, and signaling pathways of QZD in the treatment of colon cancer and provide useful information about the utilization of QZD.

Classification-based strategies to simplify complex traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) researches through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in the last decade (2011-2020): Theory, technical route and difficulty

The difficulty of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) researches lies in the complexity of components, metabolites, and bioactivities. For a long time, there has been a lack of connections among the three parts, which is not conducive to the systematic elucidation of TCM effectiveness. To overcome this problem, a classification-based methodology for simplifying TCM researches was refined from literature in the past 10 years (2011-2020). The theoretical basis of this methodology is set theory, and its core concept is classification. Its starting point is that "although TCM may contain hundreds of compounds, the vast majority of these compounds are structurally similar". The methodology is composed by research strategies for components, metabolites and bioactivities of TCM, which are the three main parts of the review. Technical route, key steps and difficulty are introduced in each part. Two perspectives are highlighted in this review: set theory is a theoretical basis for all strategies from a conceptual perspective, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is a common tool for all strategies from a technical perspective. The significance of these strategies is to simplify complex TCM researches, integrate isolated TCM researches, and build a bridge between traditional medicines and modern medicines. Potential research hotspots in the future, such as discovery of bioactive ingredients from TCM metabolites, are also discussed. The classification-based methodology is a summary of research experience in the past 10 years. We believe it will definitely provide support and reference for the following TCM researches.

Comprehensive metabolic profiling of Alismatis Rhizoma triterpenes in rats based on characteristic ions and a triterpene database

Alismatis Rhizoma (AR) is widely used in Chinese medicine, and its major bioactive components, triterpenes, reportedly possess various pharmacological activities. Therefore, it is very important to study the metabolism of triterpenes in vivo. However, the metabolism of AR triterpene extract has not been comprehensively elucidated due to its complex chemical components and metabolic pathways. In this study, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method, which was based on the characteristic ions from an established database of known triterpenes, was used to analyze the major metabolites in rats following the oral administration of Alismatis Rhizoma extracts (ARE). As a result, a total of 233 constituents, with 85 prototype compounds and 148 metabolites, were identified for the first time. Hydrogenation, oxidation, sulfate and glucuronidation conjugation were the major metabolic pathways for triterpenes in AR. In addition, the mutual in vivo transformation of known ARE triterpenes was discovered and confirmed for the first time. Those results provide comprehensive insights into the metabolism of AR in vivo, which will be useful for future studies on its pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Moreover, this established strategy may be useful in metabolic studies of similar compounds.

Global Profiling and Structural Characterization of Metabolites of Ononin Using HPLC-ESI-IT-TOF-MSn After Oral Administration to Rats

Ononin is a bioactive isoflavone of legumes. To explore the "effective forms" of ononin, its metabolites were characterized using HPLC-ESI-IT-TOF-MSⁿ after oral administration to rats. Metabolites (106), including 94 new metabolites, were characterized, which contained 17 phase I, 23 hydroxylated and methylated, 54 sulfated, 10 glucuronidated, and 2 sulfated and glucuronidated metabolites. Six hydroxylated metabolites of formononetin (aglycone of ononin) were simultaneously detected for the first time. Twenty-three hydroxylated and methylated metabolites were the new metabolites of ononin, and the number of hydroxylation and methylation was 1-3 and 1-2. Twenty metabolites have ononin-related bioactivities, and many metabolites have the same bioactivities. Their probable mechanisms of action may be additive and/or synergistic effects, especially because of the addition of the blood concentrations of these compounds. The results provide a foundation for a better understanding of the "effective forms" of ononin.

Exploring the In Vivo Existence Forms (23 Original Constituents and 147 Metabolites) of Astragali Radix Total Flavonoids and Their Distributions in Rats Using HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MSn

Astragali Radix total flavonoids (ARTF) is one of the main bioactive components of Astragali Radix (AR), and has many pharmacological effects. However, its metabolism and effective forms remains unclear. The HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MSⁿ technique was used to screen and tentatively identify the in vivo original constituents and metabolites of ARTF and to clarify their distribution in rats after oral administration. In addition, modern chromatographic methods were used to isolate the main metabolites from rat urine and NMR spectroscopy was used to elucidate their structures. As a result, 170 compounds (23 original constituents and 147 metabolites) were tentatively identified as forms existing in vivo, 13 of which have the same pharmacological effect with ARTF. Among 170 compounds, three were newly detected original constituents in vivo and 89 were new metabolites of ARTF, from which 12 metabolites were regarded as new compounds. Nineteen original constituents and 65 metabolites were detected in 10 organs. Four metabolites were isolated and identified from rat urine, including a new compound (calycoisn-3'-O-glucuronide methyl ester), a firstly-isolated metabolite (astraisoflavan-7-O-glucoside-2'-O-glucuronide), and two known metabolites (daidzein-7-O-sulfate and calycosin-3'-O-glucuronide). The original constituents and metabolites existing in vivo may be material basis for ARTF efficacy, and these findings are helpful for further clarifying the effective forms of ARTF.

Systematically characterization of in vivo substances of Ziziphi Spinosae Semen in rats by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry analysis

Ziziphi Spinosae Semen (ZSS), the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa, is widely used in China or other Asian countries for the treatment of insomnia and palpitation. In our previous work, chemical constituents in ZSS were profiled by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/Q-TOF MS). Notably, characterization of substances in vivo was of great importance to reveal the therapy basis or mechanism in further work. Till now, there were few reports about in vivo substances' investigation of ZSS. In the present study, an integrated strategy contained represented compounds and diagnostic ions extraction was applied to characterize metabolism feature of ZSS in rats based on UHPLC/Q-TOF MS method. First, the metabolic information of four compounds (spinosin, isovitexin, jujuboside B, betulinic acid) featuring three representative chemical structures (flavonoids, saponins, terpenes) in ZSS was conducted, and their metabolism features were summarized, especially for flavonoid C-glycosides. Second, the absorbed compounds and representative compounds-related metabolites were quickly screened out; during this time, the diagnostic ions were sorted out. Last, with the help of diagnostic ions and summarized metabolic reactions, other metabolites were characterized. As a result, a total of 151 xenobiotics (58 prototypes and 93 metabolites) were identified or tentatively characterized in rats after ingestion of ZSS. Among them, 16 substances were presented in plasma, 114 in urine, 51 in bile, and 120 in feces, respectively. Hydrogenation, hydrolysis, and glucuronidation were the major metabolic reactions of ZSS in rats. The present study provided meaningful data for further pharmacological mechanism research or pharmacokinetics evaluation of ZSS.

Discovery of the active compounds of Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma by utilizing the relationship between the individual differences in blood drug concentration and the pharmacological effect in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study addresses the rapid discovery of the active compounds (the original constituents and/or metabolites) of a traditional Chinese drug, Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma (SGR).

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to develop a new method to find out the active compounds of traditional drugs in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A method was established to discover and identify the potential active compounds in drug-containing plasma from rats that were orally administered SGR extract, utilizing the relationship between the individual differences in blood drug concentrations in the rats and the resulting differences in pharmacological effect, and the method was denoted as the RID-PE method. For this method, we used high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector combined with electrospray ionization ion trap time-of-flight multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MSⁿ) to identify the compounds (the original constituents and metabolites) and to determine the peak areas of the compounds in drug-containing plasma following SGR treatment. The anti-inflammatory effect of SGR was evaluated using a carrageenan-induced inflammatory rat model. According to the percent inhibition of paw edema in each model rat (14 rats total) orally administered SGR extract, the plasma samples from the rats were sorted and divided into 7 groups. Each group consisted of two plasma samples, and their percent inhibition of paw edema were similar to each other. We performed an LC-MSⁿ analysis on 3 plasma groups, which showed large differences in the inhibition rates, with percent inhibitions of 92.7%, 72.4% and 38.4%. The correlation coefficients (r) between the peak area of each compound and the pharmacological effect (inhibition ratio) of SGR in the three groups were analyzed using SPSS software. When the correlation coefficients of the compounds are greater than 0.8 (0.8 < r ≤1), these compounds are strongly and positively correlated with anti-inflammatory activity, making them potential anti-inflammatory active compounds.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight potential anti-inflammatory compounds (0.8 < r ≤ 1) from SGR were discovered in model rat plasma using the RID-PE method, 47 of which were considered to be new potentially anti-inflammatory compounds. Among these compounds, four original constituents and 5 isomers of potential anti-inflammatory metabolites were validated to have significant anti-inflammatory effects, and they included astilbin, syringic acid, catechin, coumalic acid, resveratrol-3'-O-glucuronide (RG, isomer of M2 or M3), 3'-O-methyl-(+)-epicatechin-4'-O-glucuronide (CA-1, isomer of M16), 4'-O-methyl-(+)-epicatechin-3'-O-glucuronide (CA-2, isomer of M16), 4'-O-methyl-(+)-epicatechin-7-O-glucuronide (CA-3, isomer of M16) and 3'-O-methyl-(+)-epicatechin-7-O-glucuronide (CA-4, isomer of M16). In addition, four isomers (CA-1-CA-4) were reported to have anti-inflammatory effects for the first time, and CA-3 was a new compound.

CONCLUSIONS

The RID-PE method can be used to discover and identify the active constituents and metabolites of SGR systematically and in vivo. Furthermore, these findings enhance our understanding of the metabolism and effective forms of SGR.

A review on the pharmacokinetics of paeoniflorin and its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects

Increasing pharmacological evidence supports that paeoniflorin, a water-soluble monoterpene glycoside isolated from Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (Shaoyao in Chinese), has a wide range of medicinal properties including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticonvulsive, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antidepressant-like, antitumoral, and immune-regulatory activities; as well as enhancing cognition and attenuating learning impairment. In addition to pharmacodynamic studies, information on pharmacokinetics is also significant for the further development and utilization of paeoniflorin. The present review focuses on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of paeoniflorin, especially main pharmacological activities of paeoniflorin on inflammation and immune function. According to the findings obtained both in vitro and in vivo, a broad application prospect has been opened for paeoniflorin. However, further studies are needed to clarity the direct molecular mechanisms and key targets underlying the beneficial effects of paeoniflorin on inflammation and immunity.

Separation, synthesis, and cytotoxicity of a series of mogrol derivatives

Four metabolites of mogrol were separated, identified and characterized. Their antitumor activity was evaluated, and the results showed side chain modification would probably enhance the cytotoxicity. Therefore, three types of amines, alcohols and rigid planar derivatives were synthesized. Compounds 20 and 21 containing a tetrahydro-β-carboline structure at the end of the side chain exhibited IC₅₀ values around 2-9 μM against A549 and CNE1 cell comparing with 80-90 μM of mogrol. Structure analysis suggested that the perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene moiety and the tetrahydro-β-carboline moiety could probably enhance the activity through an intramolecular synergistic effect.[Formula: see text].

Identification and characterization of chemical constituents in Qi-Lin pills and their metabolites in rat bio-samples after oral administration using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Qi-Lin pill (QLP), a traditional Chinese medicine prescription (TCMP), composed of fifteen herbal medicines, has been widely used for the treatment of male infertility. However, an in-depth understanding of the chemical constituents of QLP and its in vivo metabolic study is lacking. In this study, a method using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q-TOF-MS) was established for comprehensive analysis of chemical constituents of QLP and their metabolites in plasma, urine, bile and feces after gastric perfusion. The method guaranteed the fast discovery of representative structural fragment information and provided efficient structure clues for identification based on data from MS^E mode. As a result, a total of 202 constituents were unambiguously identified or tentatively characterized. In addition, a total of 203 QLP-related xenobiotics were characterized, including 41 (22 prototypes and 19 metabolites) in plasma, 144 (47 prototypes and 97 metabolites) in urine, 50 (27 prototypes and 23 metabolites) in bile and 68 (51 prototypes and 17 metabolites) in feces. The metabolism reactions included phase I reactions (demethylation, hydroxylation, deglycosylation, deoxygenation, hydrogenation, dehydration, oxidation and hydrolysis) and phase II reactions (methylation, conjugation with glucuronide and sulfate). This was the first comprehensive investigation on chemical constituents and metabolic profiles of QLP in vivo, and the results provided chemical foundation for further research on effective substances and action mechanism of QLP.

Mineral Elements and Active Ingredients in Root of Wild Paeonia lactiflora Growing at Duolun County, Inner Mongolia

Roots of wild Paeonia lactiflora are often used as herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, the contents of potassium (K), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) and the concentrations of three active ingredients such as paeoniflorin (PF), catechin (CA) and benzoic acid (BA) in roots of wild P. lactiflora collected from Duolun County of Inner Mongolia in China were evaluated. The results showed that the mean contents of eight elements followed the following order: Ca > K > P > Mg > Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu, and the concentrations of three active ingredients decreased in the order: PF > CA > BA. It was found that PF concentration was positively correlated with the contents of Fe and Mn. However, the concentration of CA was linearly decreased with Mg content. Moreover, BA concentration showed positive linear dependence upon the contents of P and Mn. Results of stepwise regression analyses showed that 39.2% of the variance in PF concentration could be explained by Fe content, whereas 28.1% of the CA concentration changes could be explained by Mg content; moreover, 42.5% of the variance in BA concentration could be accounted for by the combination of Mn and P contents. In a word, the concentrations of active ingredients in roots of P. lactiflora can be changed by adjusting mineral elements levels in roots to meet the need of appropriate quality control of P. lactiflora.

Exploring the Therapeutic Composition and Mechanism of Jiang-Suan-Chu-Bi Recipe on Gouty Arthritis Using an Integrated Approach Based on Chemical Profile, Network Pharmacology and Experimental Support Using Molecular Cell Biology

Background

Gouty arthritis is a common metabolic disease caused by long-term purine metabolic disorder and elevated serum uric acid. Jiang-Suan-Chu-Bi recipe (JSCBR), a traditional Chinese herbal formula prescribed according to utilization frequency and cluster analysis, has been clinically validated remedy for gouty arthritis. However, its therapeutic composition and mechanism remains unclear.

Methods

In the present study, a simple, rapid, and sensitive ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS)-based chemical profiling was firstly established for comprehensively identifying the major constituents in JSCBR. A phytochemistry-based network pharmacology analysis was further performed to explore the potential therapeutic targets and pathways involved in JSCBR bioactivity. Finally, THP-1 cell model was used to verify the prediction results of network pharmacology by western blot analysis.

Results

A total of 139 compounds containing phenolic acids, flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins, alkaloids, amino acids, fatty acids, anthraquinones, terpenes, coumarins, and other miscellaneous compounds were identified, respectively. 175 disease genes, 51 potential target nodes, 80 compounds, and 11 related pathways based on network pharmacology analysis were achieved. Among these pathways and genes, NOD-like receptor signaling pathway may play an important role in the curative effect of JSCBR on gouty arthritis by regulation of NRLP3/ASC/CASP1/IL1B. The results of cellular and molecular experiments showed that JSCBR can effectively reduce the protein expression of ASC, caspase-1, IL-1β, and NRLP3 in monosodium urate-induced THP-1 cells, which indicated that JSCBR mediated inflammation in gouty arthritis by inhibiting the activation of NOD-like receptor signaling pathway.

Conclusion

Thus, the integrated approaches adopted in the present study could contribute to simplifying the complex system and providing directions for further research of JSCBR.

Phenolics of Green Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Hulls, Their Plasma and Urinary Metabolites, Bioavailability, and in Vivo Antioxidant Activities in a Rat Model

Increased processing of pulses generates large volumes of hulls, which are known as an excellent source of phenolic antioxidants. However, the bioavailability and in vivo activity of these phenolics are rarely reported. This research was therefore carried out to study the absorption, metabolism, and in vivo antioxidant activities of green pea hull (GPH) phenolics using ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography with a linear ion trap-high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry and an oxidative stress rat model. A total of 31 phenolics, including 4 phenolic acids, 24 flavonoids, and 3 other phenolics, were tentatively identified. Ten of these phenolics and 49 metabolites were found in the plasma and urine of rats, which helped to explain the favorable changes by GPH phenolics in key antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione) and indicators (total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde) in the plasma and different tissues of rats. This is the first comprehensive report on dry pea hull phenolics and their bioavailability, metabolic profiles, and mechanisms of in vivo antioxidant activities.

UPLC-Q-TOF/MS characterization of efficacy substances on osteoblasts differentiation and function in rat serum after administration of Wang-Bi tablet

Wang-Bi tablet (WB) is popularly used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. However, few studies have been carried out on its active ingredients and mechanism. In this study, the effect of WB medicated serum on the changes in differentiation and function in osteoblast was investigated, the results showed that WB induced the production of ALP and mineralized nodules to promote the final maturation of osteoblasts and enhance the function of osteoblasts. The potential mechanism may that WB significantly inhibits gene expressions of RANKL and miR-141, up-regulates the gene expressions of RUNX2 and OPG, decreases expression of DKK-1 and increases levels of β-catenin protein to promote the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways, which enhances osteogenesis and bone repair function. To investigate which compounds contributed to the activity and mechanisms, a total of 138 compounds were characterized from WB, and 13 parent molecules and eight metabolites in rat serum were rapidly characterized by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS. Total glycosides of paeony, loganin, α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid and naringin from WB may contribute to the actions on osteoblasts according to our study and literature review. Our research provides a method to explore the bioactive ingredients and action mechanisms of WB.

In vivo metabolism of 8,2'-diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether and the distribution of its metabolites in rats by HPLC-ESI-IT-TOF-MSn

8,2'-Diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether, a natural product with prominent anti-breast cancer activity, is the main active constituent of Sinopodophylli Fructus. A high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector coupled with electrospray ionization ion trap time-of-flight multistage mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MSⁿ) method was established and applied to profile and identify the metabolites of 8,2'-diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether as well as study their distribution in rat organs for the first time. A total of 100 new metabolites were tentatively identified in rats. The metabolic reactions of 8,2'-diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether in rats in vivo were hydroxylation, methylation, glucuronidation, dehydrogenation, sulfation, polymerization and cysteine conjugation as well as the specific reactions of leucine/isoleucine, proline, and vitamin C conjugation. The detected metabolites included 77 in faeces, 50 in urine, 11 in plasma, 50 in the small intestine, 32 in the stomach, 23 in the liver, 9 in the lungs, 9 in the spleen, 8 in the heart, and 6 in the kidneys. The results indicated that the small intestine, stomach, and liver were the major organs for the distribution of 8,2'-diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether metabolites. Furthermore, 27 metabolites showed various bioactivities predicted by the analysis of "PharmMapper", among which 9 metabolites showed anti-cancer activity. These results are very useful for understanding the metabolism and pharmacological actions as well as the effective forms and toxic actions of 8,2'-diprenylquercetin 3-methyl ether in vivo; moreover, they will lay the foundation for further studies on the metabolism of prenylflavonoid compounds.