Multiresidue determination of 21 pharmaceuticals in crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) using enzymatic microwave-assisted liquid extraction and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry analysis

Challenges and effective tracking down strategies of antibiotic contamination in aquatic ecosystem

A growing environmental concern revolves around the widespread use of medicines, particularly antibiotics, which adversely impact water quality and various life forms. The unregulated production and utilization of antibiotics not only affect non-targeted organisms but also exert significant evolutionary pressures, leading to the rapid development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacterial communities. To address this issue, global studies have been conducted to assess the prevalence and quantities of antibiotics in various environmental components including freshwater, ocean, local sewage, and fish. These studies aim to establish effective analytical methods for identifying and measuring antibiotic residues in environmental matrices that might enable authorities to establish norms for the containment and disposal of antibiotics. This article offers a comprehensive overview of methods used to extract antibiotics from environmental matrices exploring purification techniques such as liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction, green extraction techniques, and concentration methods like lyophilization and rotary evaporation. It further highlights qualitative and quantitative analysis methods, high-performance liquid chromatography, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography, and liquid chromatography-tandem along with analytical methods such as UV-Vis and tandem mass spectrometry for detecting and measuring antibiotics. Urgency is underscored for proactive strategies to curb antibiotic contamination, safeguarding the integrity of aquatic ecosystems and public health on a global scale.

Targeted and untargeted metabolomic analysis of Procambarus clarkii exposed to a "chemical cocktail" of heavy metals and diclofenac

Water pollution poses an important problem, but limited information is available about the joined effects of xenobiotics of different chemical groups to evaluate the real biological response. Procambarus clarkii (P. clarkii) has been demonstrated to be a good bioindicator for assessing the quality of aquatic ecosystems. In this work, we studied the bioaccumulation of cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) and diclofenac (DCF) in different tissues of P. clarkii during 21 days after the exposure to a "chemical cocktail" of As, Cd and DCF, and until 28 days considering a depuration period. In addition, a combined untargeted and targeted metabolomic analysis was carried out to delve the metabolic impairments caused as well as the metabolization of DCF. Our results indicate that As and Cd were mainly accumulated in the hepatopancreas followed by gills and finally abdominal muscle. As and Cd show a general trend to increase the concentration throughout the exposure experience, while a decrease in the concentration of these elements is observed after 7 days of the depuration process. This is also the case in the abdominal muscle for Cd, but not for As and DCF, which increased the concentration in this tissue in the depuration phase. The hepatopancreas showed the greatest number of metabolic pathways affected. Thus, we observed a crucial bioaccumulation of xenobiotics and impairments of metabolites in different tissues. This is the first study combining the exposure to metals and pharmaceutically active compounds in P. clarkii by untargeted metabolomics including the biotransformation of DCF.

Determination of Antibiotic Residues in Aquaculture Products by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry: Recent Trends and Developments from 2010 to 2020

The issue of antibiotic residues in aquaculture products has aroused much concern over the last decade. The residues can remain in food and enter the human body through the food chain, posing great risks to public health. For the safety of foods and products, many countries have issued maximum residue limits and banned lists for antibiotics in aquaculture products. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) has been widely used for the determination of trace antibiotic residues due to its high sensitivity, selectivity and throughput. However, considering its matrix effects during quantitative measurements, it has high requirements for sample pre-treatment, instrument parameters and quantitative method. This review summarized the application of LC/MS/MS in the detection of antibiotic residues in aquaculture products in the past decade (from 2010 to 2020), including sample pre-treatment techniques such as hydrolysis, derivatization, extraction and purification, mass spectrometry techniques such as triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as status of matrix certified reference materials (CRMs) and matrix effect.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in seafood from two Brazilian coastal areas: Implication for human risk assessment

Pharmaceuticals (PhACs) are considered emerging contaminants with potential accumulation in aquatic organisms. Thus, seafood consumption may cause long-term effects and health risk for consumers. In the present study, the occurrence of PhACs in seafood from two Brazilian coastal areas, Sepetiba Bay (n = 43) and Parnaiba Delta River (n = 48), was determined for the first time, and their potential risk for human health was assessed. An eco-friendly multi-analytes method was used, after being validated for the different types of matrices (mussels, fatty and lean fish). All compounds under study were detected at least in four seafood species, including chloramphenicol, an antibiotic prohibited in animal foods. Most PhACs had mean concentrations below limit of quantification. Ibuprofen and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), as well as simvastatin and carbamazepine were the main PhACs bioaccumulated in edible parts of seafood species from Brazil. The high trophic level carnivorous species, snook, was the most contaminated by NSAIDs, while bivalves were the seafood more contaminated by lipid regulators. The profile of contamination did not vary among different types of matrix, except in relation to carbamazepine and ketoprofen. These PhACs were more abundant in species from Sepetiba Bay, an area highly impacted by human influence. The estimated daily exposure for Brazilian population that consumes the studied species was up to 20.3 ng/kg bw/day via carib pointed-venus and 25.7 ng/kg bw/day via snooks, lower than acceptable daily intake. Thus, consumption of seafood species from Sepetiba Bay and Parnaiba Delta River seems to be safe to the population in what concerns the PhACs studied.

Monitoring of pharmaceuticals in aquatic biota (Procambarus clarkii) of the Doñana National Park (Spain)

In this work the presence of different pharmaceuticals at Doñana National Park (Spain) and their main entry sources (input source or entry points) have been stated over the 2011-2016 years period. Twenty-three selected pharmaceuticals (corresponding to eight therapeutic families) were evaluated in crayfish and water samples from Doñana National Park (Spain) (six sampling points selected in order to cover different possible pollution sources into and surrounding the Park). The multiresidue determination was carried out using enzymatic-microwave assisted extraction prior to high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry detection. Sulphonamides (sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, and sulfamethoxazole); trimethoprim, an antibiotic that is frequently co-administered with sulfamethoxazole; amphenicols (chloramphenicol, florfenicol and thiamphenicol); fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, flumequine, danofloxacin, gatifloxacin, norfloxacin, marbofloxacin and grepafloxacin); penicillins (amoxicillin); tetracyclines (chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline); non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (salicylic acid and ibuprofen); beta-blocker drugs (atenolol); and antiepileptics (carbamazepine) were analysed. Ciprofloxacin, ibuprofen, salicylic acid, flumequine, and carbamazepine were detected and/or quantified at some of the selected sampling points. A clear ecotoxicological risk to the ecosystem was demonstrated from the occurrence of ciprofloxacin in samples obtained after the punctual and massive presence of people inside the Park. Furthermore, flumequine and carbamazepine have been detected in Procambarus clarkii specimens in concentrations around 30 ng g^-1 and 14 ng g^-1, respectively, and their occurrence in the specimens could indicate the persistence of the discharge sources. The main source of pharmaceuticals into the Park might be the livestock farming activities, and the influence of urban wastewaters from surrounding villages does not seem to be very important.

Faecal microbiota and antibiotic resistance genes in migratory waterbirds with contrasting habitat use

Migratory birds may have a vital role in the spread of antimicrobial resistance across habitats and regions, but empirical data remain scarce. We investigated differences in the gut microbiome composition and the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in faeces from four migratory waterbirds wintering in South-West Spain that differ in their habitat use. The white stork Ciconia ciconia and lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus are omnivorous and opportunistic birds that use highly anthropogenic habitats such as landfills and urban areas. The greylag goose Anser anser and common crane Grus grus are herbivores and use more natural habitats. Fresh faeces from 15 individuals of each species were analysed to assess the composition of bacterial communities using 16S rRNA amplicon-targeted sequencing, and to quantify the abundance of the Class I integron integrase gene (intI1) as well as genes encoding resistance to sulfonamides (sul1), beta-lactams (bla_TEM, bla_KPC and bla_NDM), tetracyclines (tetW), fluoroquinolones (qnrS), and colistin (mcr-1) using qPCR. Bacterial communities in gull faeces were the richest and most diverse. Beta diversity analysis showed segregation in faecal communities between bird species, but those from storks and gulls were the most similar, these being the species that regularly feed in landfills. Potential bacterial pathogens identified in faeces differed significantly between bird species, with higher relative abundance in gulls. Faeces from birds that feed in landfills (stork and gull) contained a significantly higher abundance of ARGs (sul1, bla_TEM, and tetW). Genes conferring resistance to last resort antibiotics such as carbapenems (bla_KPC) and colistin (mcr-1) were only observed in faeces from gulls. These results show that these bird species are reservoirs of antimicrobial resistant bacteria and suggest that waterbirds may disseminate antibiotic resistance across environments (e.g., from landfills to ricefields or water supplies), and thus constitute a risk for their further spread to wildlife and humans.

A rapid multiclass method for antibiotic residues in goat dairy products by UPLC-quadrupole/electrostatic field orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry

Background

Sulfanilamides, quinolones, nitroimidazoles, tetracyclines, cephalosporins, macrolides, and β-lactam are common tools in agriculture and can be found in animal-based foods such as goat milk and goat dried milk. To evaluate the risk of these species, reliable analytical methods are needed for accurate concentration determination, especially in goat milk and goat dried milk.

Method

We describe a method based on PRiME extraction coupled with UPLC-quadrupole/electrostatic field orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry to accomplish this task.

Result

Under optimal conditions, the limit of quantification for all antibiotics was 0.5–100 μg/L in goat milk and goat dried milk samples. The recoveries were 60.6–110.0% for goat milk and 60.1–109.6% for goat dried milk with a coefficient of variation less than 15%. The detection limits were 0.5–1.0 μg/kg. The limits of quantification for the analytes were 5.0–10.0 μg/kg. Finally, the method was used to screen veterinary antibiotics in 50 local goat milk and goat dried milk samples; metronidazole and enrofloxacin were detected in goat milk.

Conclusion

This method offers good reliability and the capacity for simultaneous detection can be used to detect residual contents and evaluate health risks in goat milk and goat dried milk.

Development and Validation of an Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method to Determine Maduramicin in Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and Evaluate Food Safety

Maduramicin (MAD) is widely introduced into aquatic environments and results in the contamination of fish products. Worryingly, the consumption of MAD-contaminated crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) may induce symptoms of Haff disease. In this study, to monitor this potential contamination and to understand the residue and elimination characteristics of MAD in edible tissues of crayfish, a sensitive and efficient ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed, validated, and applied. After extraction with acetonitrile and purification by solid-phase extraction column, multiple-reaction monitoring mass spectrometry with positive ionization mode was used to determine MAD's residues. The limits of detection and of quantification were 6 μg·kg^-1 and 20 μg·kg^-1, respectively. The fortified recoveries ranged from 74.2% to 110.4%, with relative standard deviation of 1.2% to 10.1%. Furthermore, MAD was completely eliminated after 3 and 5 days from abdominal muscle and hepatopancreas tissues of crayfish, respectively. The maximum residue limits (MRLs) of MAD respectively was 200 μg·kg^-1 in muscle and 600 μg·kg^-1 in the hepatopancreas, and its withdrawal time in both edible tissues was 25.8 °C·d. Collectively, the results of this study indicate the proposed method is an efficient tool to evaluate the public health risk associated with crayfish consumption.

Application of Nanostructured Carbon-Based Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors for Screening of Emerging Pharmaceutical Pollutants in Waters and Aquatic Species: A Review

Pharmaceuticals, as a contaminant of emergent concern, are being released uncontrollably into the environment potentially causing hazardous effects to aquatic ecosystems and consequently to human health. In the absence of well-established monitoring programs, one can only imagine the full extent of this problem and so there is an urgent need for the development of extremely sensitive, portable, and low-cost devices to perform analysis. Carbon-based nanomaterials are the most used nanostructures in (bio)sensors construction attributed to their facile and well-characterized production methods, commercial availability, reduced cost, high chemical stability, and low toxicity. However, most importantly, their relatively good conductivity enabling appropriate electron transfer rates-as well as their high surface area yielding attachment and extraordinary loading capacity for biomolecules-have been relevant and desirable features, justifying the key role that they have been playing, and will continue to play, in electrochemical (bio)sensor development. The present review outlines the contribution of carbon nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, fullerene, carbon nanofibers, carbon black, carbon nanopowder, biochar nanoparticles, and graphite oxide), used alone or combined with other (nano)materials, to the field of environmental (bio)sensing, and more specifically, to pharmaceutical pollutants analysis in waters and aquatic species. The main trends of this field of research are also addressed.

Detection, occurrence, and fate of emerging contaminants in agricultural environments (2019)

A review of 82 papers published in 2018 is presented. The topics ranged from detailed descriptions of analytical methods, to fate and occurrence studies, to ecological effects and sampling techniques for a wide variety of emerging contaminants likely to occur in agricultural environments. New methods and studies on veterinary pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and engineered nanomaterials in agricultural environments continue to expand our knowledge base on the occurrence and potential impacts of these compounds. This review is divided into the following sections: Introduction, Analytical Methods, Fate and Occurrence, Pharmaceutical Metabolites, Anthelmintics, Microplastics, and Engineered Nanomaterials. PRACTITIONER POINTS: New research describes innovative new techniques for emerging contaminant detection in agricultural settings. Newer classes of contaminants include human and veterinary pharmaceuticals. Research in microplastics and nanomaterials shows that these also occur in agricultural environments and will likely be topics of future work.

Redox and global interconnected proteome changes in mice exposed to complex environmental hazards surrounding Doñana National Park

Natural environments are receiving an increasing number of contaminants. Therefore, the evaluation and identification of early responses to pollution in these complex habitats is an urgent and challenging task. Doñana National Park (DNP, SW Spain) has been widely used as a model area for environmental studies because, despite its strictly protected core, it is surrounded by numerous threat sources from agricultural, mining and industrial activities. Since many pollutants often induce oxidative stress, redox proteomics was used to detect redox-based variations within the proteome of Mus spretus mice captured in DNP and the surrounding areas. Functional analysis showed that most differentially oxidized proteins are involved in the maintenance of homeostasis, by eliciting mechanisms to respond to toxic substances and oxidative stress, such as antioxidant and biotransformation processes, immune and inflammatory responses, and blood coagulation. Furthermore, changes in the overall protein abundance were also analysed by label-free quantitative proteomics. The upregulation of phase I and II biotransformation enzymes in mice from Lucio del Palacio may be an alert for organic pollution in the area located at the heart of DNP. Metabolic processes involved in protein turnover (proteolysis, amino acid catabolism, new protein biosynthesis and folding) were activated in response to oxidative damage to these biomolecules. Consequently, aerobic respiratory metabolism increased to address the greater ATP demands. Alterations of cholesterol metabolism that could cause hepatic steatosis were also detected. The proteomic detection of globally altered metabolic and physiological processes offers a complete view of the main biological changes caused by environmental pollution in complex habitats.

Novel coordination imprinted polymer monolithic column applied to the solid-phase extraction of flumequine from fish samples

In this study, a coordination imprinted polymer (CIP) solid-phase extraction (SPE) method was developed to determine the residues of flumequine (FLU) in fish samples. Silanized graphene oxide-doped CIP (SGO-CIP) monolithic column was prepared using FLU-Zn²⁺ as template in the presence of SGO. The synthesis conditions of SGO-CIP column were optimized by the response surface methodology. Under the optimum conditions, this column showed high specificity to FLU, and the adsorption capacity reached 61.74 ng mg^-1. The enrichment factor of the monolithic column was over 40-fold. Various factors affecting the extraction efficiency of SGO-CIP column during SPE were tested to achieve optimal enrichment and to reduce non-specific adsorption. FLU in fish was detected by using a high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection system. The detection limit was as low as 0.32 ng g^-1 and the recovery was as high as 95.2%, with relative standard deviations of below 5.9%. This simple and sensitive method may be applicable to the determination of FLU residues in foods.