Bioavailability of flumequine and diclofenac in mice exposed to a metal-drug chemical cocktail. Evaluation of the protective role of selenium

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Organisms, including humans, are subjected to the simultaneous action of a wide variety of pollutants, the effects of which should not be considered in isolation, as many synergies and antagonisms have been found between many of them. Therefore, this work proposes an in vivo study to evaluate the effect of certain metal contaminants on the bioavailability and metabolism of pharmacologically active compounds. Because the most frequent entry vector is through ingestion, the influence of the gut microbiota and the possible protective effects of selenium has been additionally evaluated.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A controlled exposure experiment in mammals (Mus musculus) to a "chemical cocktail" consisting of metals and pharmaceuticals (diclofenac and flumequine). The presence of selenium has also been evaluated as an antagonist. Mouse plasma samples were measured by UPLC-QTOF. A targeted search of 48 metabolites was also performed.

KEY RESULTS

Metals significantly affected the FMQ plasma levels when the gut microbiota was depleted. Hydroxy FMQ decreased if metals were present. Selenium minimized this decrease. The 3-hydroxy DCF metabolite was not found in any case. Changes in some metabolic pathways are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The presence of metals in the mouse diet as well as the prior treatment of mice with an antibiotic mixture (Abxs), which deplete the gut microbiota, has a decisive effect on the bioavailability and metabolism of the tested pharmaceuticals and dietary selenium minimize some of their effects.

Electromembrane extraction of peptides based on hydrogen bond interactions

BACKGROUND

Electromembrane extraction (EME) of peptides reported in the scientific literature involve transfer of net positively charged peptides from an aqueous sample, through a liquid membrane, and into an aqueous acceptor solution, under the influence of an electrical field. The liquid membrane comprises an organic solvent, containing an ionic carrier. The purpose of the ionic carrier is to facilitate peptide solvation in the organic solvent based on ionic interactions. Unfortunately, ionic carriers increase the conductivity of the liquid membrane; the current in the system increases, the electrolysis in sample and acceptor is accelerated, and the extraction system tend to be unstable and suffers from drifting pH.

RESULTS

In the present work, a broad selection of organic solvents were tested as pure liquid membrane for EME of peptides, without ionic carrier. Several phosphates provided high mass transfer, and tri(pentyl) phosphate was selected since this solvent also provided high operational stability. Among 16 different peptides used as model analytes, tri(pentyl) phosphate extracted those with net charge +1 and with no more than two polar side chains. Tri(pentyl) phosphate served as a very strong hydrogen bond acceptor, while the protonated peptides were hydrogen bond donors. By such, hydrogen bonding served as the primary interactions responsible for mass transfer. Tri(pentyl) phosphate as liquid membrane, could exhaustively extract leu-enkephalin, met-enkephalin, and endomorphin from human blood plasma and detected by LC-MS/MS. Calibration curves were linear (r² > 0.99) within a concentration range from 1 to 500 ng/mL, and a relative standard deviation within 12% was observed for precision studies.

SIGNIFICANCE

The current experiments are important because they indicate that small peptides of low polarity may be extracted selectively in EME based on hydrogen bond interactions, in systems not suffering from electrolysis.

Green strategies using solvent-free biodegradable membranes in microfluidic devices. Liquid phase microextraction and electromembrane extraction

In this work, a novel solvent-free microfluidic method based liquid phase microextraction has been proposed for the first time. A comprehensive study of liquid phase microextraction (LPME) and electromembrane extraction (EME) implemented in microfluidic formats has been carried out to investigate the efficiency of biodegradable membranes (such as agarose) without organic solvent to develop fully environmental microfluidic methods. For this study, non-polar and polar basic compounds (five) were selected as model analytes and different agarose membrane compositions were synthesized and tested with and without organic solvent (solvent-free). Under optimal experimental conditions, the extraction efficiencies obtained using solvent-free LPME-chip devices were similar to the ones obtained using solvent-free EME-chip devices at very low voltages (0.25 V), however, LPME microfluidic format was selected due to its simplicity. The proposed green microfluidic device was successfully applied in urine samples with recoveries between 80 and 93% for all analytes and relative standard deviation below 7% for all analytes. Results were compared with experiments previously conducted using conventional (polypropylene) membranes, observing that solvent-free microfluidic systems based on biodegradable solid support materials have proven to be an attractive alternative and offered the same advantages in terms of membrane stability allowing consecutive extractions compared to supported liquid membranes (SLM) microfluidic methods.

An improved microfluidic device to enhance the enrichment factors in liquid phase microextraction: application to the simultaneous extraction of polar and non-polar acids in biological samples

A new microfluidic device to enhance the enrichment factor in miniaturized systems is proposed. The microfluidic system was design for liquid phase microextractions, and it was applied to the simultaneous extraction of acidic compounds of a wide range of polarity (0.5 < log P < 3). The device operated under stagnant acceptor phase conditions and all the operational parameters involved were optimized. Tributyl phosphate was found to be a new highly efficient supported liquid membrane to simultaneously extract analytes of very different polarities. The optimal donor and acceptor phase were pH 2 and pH 13, respectively. The donor flow rate and the extraction time were investigated simultaneously, offering great versatility with high enrichment factors (EFs). Limits of quantitation were within 0.02 and 0.09 µg mL^-1 for all compounds at 10 µL min^-1 as donor flow rate and 20-min extractions, offering EFs between 11 and 18 with only 200-µL sample volume consumption. The method was successfully applied to human urine samples, observing recoveries between 47 and 90% for all compounds. This new proposed microfluidic system increases the wide range of applications, especially when the analytes are present in lower concentrations in the sample.

Solid supports and supported liquid membranes for different liquid phase microextraction and electromembrane extraction configurations. A review

Liquid phase microextraction (LPME) and electromembrane microextraction (EME) can be considered as two of the most popular techniques in sample treatment today. Both techniques can be configurated as membrane-assisted techniques to carry out the extraction. These supports provide the required geometry and stability on the contact surface between two phases (donor and acceptor) and improve the reproducibility of sample treatment techniques. These solid support pore space, once is filled with organic solvents, act as a selective barrier acting as a supported liquid membrane (SLM). The SLM nature is a fundamental parameter, and its selection is critical to carry out successful extractions. There are numerous SLMs that have been successfully employed in a wide variety of application fields. The latter is due to the specificity of the selected organic solvents, which allows the extraction of compounds of a very different nature. In the last decade, solid supports and SLM have evolved towards "green" and environmentally friendly materials and solvents. In this review, solid supports implemented in LPME and EME will be discussed and summarized, as well as their applications. Moreover, the advances and modifications of the solid supports and the SLMs to improve the extraction efficiencies, recoveries and enrichment factors are discussed. Hollow fiber and flat membranes, including microfluidic systems, will be considered depending on the technique, configuration, or device used.

A microchip device based liquid-liquid-solid microextraction for the determination of permethrin and cypermethrin in water samples

In this work, for the first time, a microchip device integrating liquid-liquid-solid phase microextraction is presented. As a novel approach to microchip systems, liquid-liquid-solid microextraction was performed in a sandwiched microchip device. The microchip device consisted of three poly(methyl methacrylate) layers along with a double "Y"-shaped microchannel. As the stationary phase, polyacrylonitrile-C18 was synthesized and immobilized in the upper channel, while the beneath channel was used as a reservoir for the stagnant volume ratio of sample-to-extraction solvent phase. In this way, analytes were extracted from an aqueous sample through an organic phase into the stationary phase. The analytes were finally desorbed with a minimum amount of acetonitrile as the desorption solvent. Permethrin and cypermethrin were selected as the model analytes for extraction and subsequent analysis by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection. Under optimum conditions (extraction solvent; n-hexane, sample -to-extraction solvent volume ratio; 2:1, extraction time; 20 min, desorption solvent; acetonitrile, desorption volume; 200 μL, and desorption time; 15 min) detection limits were 3.5 and 6.0 ng mL^-1 for permethrin and cypermethrin, respectively. Relative standard deviations for intra- and inter-day reproducibility were below 8.3%. Device-to-device precision was in the range of 8.1-9.6%. The proposed microchip device was successfully applied to determine permethrin and cypermethrin in water samples with recoveries in the range of 73-96%.

Microfluidic liquid-phase microextraction based on natural deep eutectic solvents immobilized in agarose membranes

In liquid-phase microextraction (LPME), the sample and the acceptor are separated by a synthetic organic solvent, which is immobilized in a porous polymeric membrane of polypropylene or polyvinylidene fluoride. The organic solvent serves as extraction phase, while the polymeric membrane serves as support membrane. The combination of extraction phase and support membrane is termed supported liquid membrane (SLM). In this paper, we developed for the first time fully green and biodegradable supported SLMs, based on natural deep eutectic solvents as extraction phase and agarose as support membrane. This highly green approach was developed and studied with sulfonamide pharmaceuticals as model analytes, and performance was compared with LPME using conventional SLMs. All experiments were conducted in a microfluidic device. Model analytes were extracted from acidic sample (pH1.0) and into alkaline acceptor (pH12.0). Both sample and acceptor were pumped at 1 μL min^-1 into the microfluidic device, and the optimal SLM was based on 3 µL of coumarin and thymol (1:2 molar ratio) as the extraction phase. The proposed green microfluidic device was successfully applied for the determination of sulfonamides in urine samples with spiking recoveries in the range of 77-100%. LPME with deep eutectic solvent immobilized in agarose showed similar performance as with conventional SLMs. Thus, the data presented in this paper demonstrate that highly green microextraction systems may be developed in the future, based on natural solvents and biodegradable materials.

Monitoring of pharmaceuticals in aquatic biota (Procambarus clarkii) of the Doñana National Park (Spain)

In this work the presence of different pharmaceuticals at Doñana National Park (Spain) and their main entry sources (input source or entry points) have been stated over the 2011-2016 years period. Twenty-three selected pharmaceuticals (corresponding to eight therapeutic families) were evaluated in crayfish and water samples from Doñana National Park (Spain) (six sampling points selected in order to cover different possible pollution sources into and surrounding the Park). The multiresidue determination was carried out using enzymatic-microwave assisted extraction prior to high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry detection. Sulphonamides (sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, and sulfamethoxazole); trimethoprim, an antibiotic that is frequently co-administered with sulfamethoxazole; amphenicols (chloramphenicol, florfenicol and thiamphenicol); fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, flumequine, danofloxacin, gatifloxacin, norfloxacin, marbofloxacin and grepafloxacin); penicillins (amoxicillin); tetracyclines (chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline); non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (salicylic acid and ibuprofen); beta-blocker drugs (atenolol); and antiepileptics (carbamazepine) were analysed. Ciprofloxacin, ibuprofen, salicylic acid, flumequine, and carbamazepine were detected and/or quantified at some of the selected sampling points. A clear ecotoxicological risk to the ecosystem was demonstrated from the occurrence of ciprofloxacin in samples obtained after the punctual and massive presence of people inside the Park. Furthermore, flumequine and carbamazepine have been detected in Procambarus clarkii specimens in concentrations around 30 ng g^-1 and 14 ng g^-1, respectively, and their occurrence in the specimens could indicate the persistence of the discharge sources. The main source of pharmaceuticals into the Park might be the livestock farming activities, and the influence of urban wastewaters from surrounding villages does not seem to be very important.

Green microfluidic liquid-phase microextraction of polar and non-polar acids from urine

In this work, hippuric acid (log P = 0.5), anthranilic acid (log P = 1.3), ketoprofen (log P = 3.6), and naproxen (log P = 3.0) were simultaneously extracted by a green microfluidic device based on the principles of liquid-phase microextraction (LPME). Different deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were investigated as supported liquid membrane (SLM), and a mixture of camphor and menthol as eutectic solvents in the molar ratio 1:1 was found to be highly efficient for the simultaneous extraction of non-polar and polar acidic drugs. LPME was conducted for 6 min per sample. Urine sample was delivered to the system at 1 μL min^-1, and target analytes were extracted exhaustively (75-100% recovery) across the DES SLM, and into pure aqueous phosphate buffer pH 11.0 delivered as acceptor at 1 μL min^-1. The acceptor was analyzed with liquid chromatography-UV detection. Interestingly, the DES enabled extraction of both the polar and non-polar model analytes at the same time; all chemicals were green and non-hazardous, and the chemical waste was less than 1 mg per sample.

A Method for the Determination of Veterinary Drugs from Different Therapeutic Classes in Animal Urine

A rapid, precise and robust HPLC separation procedure has been developed and optimized for the determination of a series of drugs of different therapeutic classes: chlortetracycline, oxitetracycline, cefoperazone, diclofenac, tiamphenicol, marbofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin and flumequine. The chromatographic method used a monolithic C18 column and both diode array and fluorescence detection. This procedure was validated for the analysis of drugs in cow urine, using a simple and fast procedure with methanol/acetonitrile, allowing the simultaneous and efficient extraction of most of the studied drugs. The proposed method was successfully applied to the determination of enrofloxacin in cow urine, collected after the administration of this antibiotic.

Comparison of three electromembrane-based extraction systems for NSAIDs analysis in human urine samples

A comparative study on the extraction efficiency of five non-steroidal anti-inflammatories was carried out using three different electromembrane extraction (EME) devices with different geometries. The employed setups were (a) a hollow fiber configuration (HF-EME), (b) a microfluidic device that allows working in semi-dynamic mode (μF-EME), and (c) a static miniaturized flat membrane device (FM-EME). Each system was applied to the extraction of salicylic acid (SAC), ketoprofen (KTP), naproxen (NAX), diclofenac (DIC), and ibuprofen (IBU) and subsequent determination by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV and fluorescence detection (HPLC/UV-DAD-FLD). Voltage, pH composition, and extraction time were optimized for all devices. Additionally, volume ratio was investigated for HF-EME and FM-EME and flow rate for the microfluidic device. HF-EME provides the best result in terms of sensitivity with a limit of detection (LOD) between 0.1 and 1.5 ng mL^-1 for SAC and KTP, respectively, while LODs for μF-EME were between 100 ng mL^-1 and 400 ng mL^-1 for SAC and DIC, respectively; however, a lower amount of sample was required. Finally, the obtained results, in terms of enrichment factors and extraction recoveries, were discussed to establish the advantages and disadvantages of each device. The proposed EME methods were successfully applied to the determination of the target analytes in fortified human urine samples. Graphical abstract.

On-chip electromembrane extraction of acidic drugs

In the present work, a new supported liquid membrane (SLM) has been developed for on-chip electromembrane extraction of acidic drugs combined with HPLC or CE, providing significantly higher stability than those reported up to date. The target analytes are five widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): ibuprofen (IBU), diclofenac (DIC), naproxen (NAX), ketoprofen (KTP) and salicylic acid (SAL). Two different microchip devices were used, both consisted basically of two poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) plates with individual channels for acceptor and sample solutions, respectively, and a 25 µm thick porous polypropylene membrane impregnated with the organic solvent in between. The SLM consisting of a mixture of 1-undecanol and 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE) in a ratio 1:3 was found to be the most suitable liquid membrane for the extraction of these acidic drugs under dynamic conditions. It showed a long-term stability of at least 8 hours, a low system current around 20 µA, and recoveries over 94% for the target analytes. NPOE was included in the SLM to significantly decrease the extraction current compared to pure 1-undecanol, while the extraction properties was almost unaffected. Moreover, it has been successfully applied to the determination of the target analytes in human urine samples, providing high extraction efficiency.

Recent trends in capillary electrophoresis for complex samples analysis: A review

CE has been a continuously evolving analytical methodology since its first introduction in the 1980s of the last century. The development of new CE separation procedures, the coupling of these systems to more sensitive and versatile detection systems, and the advances in miniaturization technology have allowed the application of CE to the resolution of new and complex analytical problems, overcoming the traditional disadvantages associated with this method. In the present work, different recent trends in CE and their application to the determination of high complexity samples (as biological fluids, individual cells, etc.) will be reviewed: capillary modification by different types of coatings, microfluidic CE, and online microextraction CE. The main advantages and disadvantages of the different proposed approaches will be discussed with examples of most recent applications.

Hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction for the direct determination of flumequine in urban wastewaters by flow-injection analysis with terbium-sensitized chemiluminescence

A flow-injection analysis chemiluminescence method based on the enhancement effect of the flumequine-Tb(III) complex on the weak native emission of the Ce(IV)-Na2SO3 system has been developed for the determination of flumequine. The method includes a cleanup and preconcentration stage (750-fold) of the sample by hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction using an Accurel(®) Q 3/2 polypropylene hollow fiber impregnated with 1-octanol as the supported liquid membrane. The obtained 50 μL acceptor phase was injected in a 1 mM Tb(III) + 4 mM Ce(IV) in 5% v/v H2 SO4 stream and mixed with a 2 mM Na2 SO3 stream before its introduction into the flow cell. The chemiluminescence signal was linear in the 0.3-15 ng/mL range, with detection and quantitation limits of 0.1 and 0.3 ng/mL, respectively. The method allows the selective extraction and determination of flumequine in wastewater samples, using simpler and lower-cost instrumentation and with shorter extraction and analysis times than traditional high-performance liquid chromatography analysis.