A comparative investigation of the interaction and pharmacokinetics of hemoglobin with berberine and its oxymetabolite

Exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells containing berberine for ulcerative colitis therapy

Berberine (Ber), an isoquinoline alkaloid, is a potential drug therapy for ulcerative colitis (UC) because of its anti-inflammatory activity, high biological safety, and few side effects. Nevertheless, its clinical application is hindered by its limited water solubility and low bioavailability. Currently, compared to synthetic nanocarriers, exosomes as carriers possess advantages such as low toxicity, high stability, and high specificity. Human placental mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (HplMSC-Exos) have emerged as a promising drug delivery system, offering intrinsic anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Therefore, we engineered MSC-Exos loaded with Ber (Exos-Ber) to enhance the solubility and bioavailability of Ber and for colon targeting, revealing a novel approach for treating UC with natural compounds. Structurally and functionally, Exos-Ber closely resembled unmodified Exos. Both in vitro and in vivo investigations confirmed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Exos-Ber. Notably, Exos-Ber exhibited reparative effects on injured epithelial cells and reduced cellular apoptosis. Furthermore, Exos-Ber concurrently demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, contributing to the mitigation of UC, possibly through its modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. Overall, our findings demonstrate the potential of Exos-Ber as a promising therapeutic option for alleviating UC, highlighting its capacity to enhance the clinical applicability of Ber.

Kidney targeting and modulating macrophage polarization through AMPK signaling: Therapeutic mechanism of berberine in uric acid nephropathy

Uric acid nephropathy (UAN), caused by a common metabolic disorder resulting from hyperuricemia (HUA), has an increasing incidence. Previous studies have shown that berberine (BBR) has clear urate-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects in UAN mice, but its mechanism needs to be further clarified. Therefore, Potassium Oxonate (PO) combined with hypoxanthine (HX) induced UAN mice model and MSU induced THP-1 cells polarization model were adopted to investigate the mechanism of BBR on UAN in terms of tissue distribution and molecular pharmacology. Study unveiled that BBR was first found to bind to red blood cells (RBCs), which were recognized and phagocytosed by monocytes, then recruited by the injured kidney. Subsequently, BBR was enriched and functional in damaged kidney. The results of in vivo experiments revealed that, BBR reduced UA, BUN, CRE levels as well as the release of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-18 and IL-6, and alleviated renal injury in UAN mice, as consistent with previous studies. Additionally, BBR decreased MCP-1 expression, while diminishing macrophage infiltration and decreasing M1 proportion as determined by RT-qPCR. In vitro experiments, demonstrated that MSU promoted inflammatory polarization of THP-1 cells, while BBR reduced synthesis of inflammatory factors and inhibited MSU-induced inflammatory polarization. These effects of BBR were dependent on AMPK activation along with indirect inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway mediated. However, the anti-inflammatory and macrophage polarization regulation effects of BBR were completely reversed upon administration of Compound C, an AMPK inhibitor. Therefore, BBR ameliorated kidney injury via regulating macrophage polarization through AMPK, which has therapeutic potential for UAN patients.

Improvement effects of a novel Chinese herbal formula in imiquimod and IL-23-stimulated mouse models of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Psoriasis is a long-term inflammatory skin disease. A novel herbal formula containing nine Chinese herbal medicines, named Inflammation Skin Disease Formula (ISDF), has been prescribed in clinics for decades.

AIMS

To investigate the efficacy and action mechanisms of ISDF on psoriasis using imiquimod (IMQ) and Interleukin-23 (IL-23)-induced models in mice and reveal the pharmacokinetics profile of ISDF in rats.

METHODS

Topical administration of IMQ and intradermal injection with IL-23 respectively induced skin lesions like psoriasis on the dorsal area of Balb/c and C57 mice. The mice's body weight, skin thickness, and psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) were assessed weekly. SD rats were used in the pharmacokinetics study and the contents of berberine and baicalin were determined.

RESULTS

The PASI scores and epidermal thickness of mice were markedly decreased after ISDF treatment in both models. ISDF treatment significantly decreased the contents of IL-17A and IL-22 in the serum of IMQ- and IL-23-treated mice. Importantly, ISDF markedly downregulated IL-4, IL-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) gene expression, and the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65, JNK, ERKs and MAPK p38 in IMQ-treated mice. The protein phosphorylation of Jak1, Jak2, Tyk2 and Stat3 was significantly mitigated in the ISDF-treated groups. The absorption of baicalin and berberine of ISDF through the gastrointestinal tract of rats was limited, and their distribution and metabolism in rats were also very slow, which suggested ISDF could be used in the long-term application.

CONCLUSIONS

ISDF has a strong anti-psoriatic therapeutic effect on mouse models induced with psoriasis through IMQ and IL-23, which is achieved by inhibiting the activation of the Jak/Stat3-activated IL-23/Th17 axis and the downstream NF-κB signalling and MAPK signalling pathways. ISDF holds great potential to be a therapy for psoriasis and should be further developed for this purpose.

Supersaturated Drug Delivery System of Oxyberberine Based on Cyclodextrin Nanoaggregates: Preparation, Characterization, and in vivo Application

Propose

Oxyberberine (OBB), one of the main metabolites of berberine derived from intestinal and erythrocyte metabolism, exhibits appreciable anti-hyperuricemic activity. However, the low water solubility and poor plasma concentration-effect relationship of OBB hamper its development and utilization. Therefore, an OBB-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) supersaturated drug delivery system (SDDS) was prepared and characterized in this work.

Methods

OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS was prepared using the ultrasonic-solvent evaporation method and characterized. Additionally, the in vitro and in vivo release experiments were conducted to assess the release kinetics of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS. Subsequently, the therapeutic efficacy of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS on hyperuricemia (HUA) was investigated by means of histopathological examination and evaluation of relevant biomarkers.

Results

The results of FT-IR, DSC, PXRD, NMR and molecular modeling showed that the crystallized form of OBB was transformed into an amorphous OBB-HP-β-CD complex. Dynamic light scattering indicated that this system was relatively stable and maintained by formation of nanoaggregates with an average diameter of 23 nm. The dissolution rate of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS was about 5 times higher than that of OBB raw material. Furthermore, the AUC0-t of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS (10.882 μg/mL*h) was significantly higher than that of the raw OBB counterpart (0.701 μg/mL*h). The oral relative bioavailability of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS was also enhanced by 16 times compared to that of the raw material. Finally, in vivo pharmacodynamic assay showed the anti-hyperuricemic potency of OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS was approximately 5-10 times higher than that of OBB raw material.

Conclusion

Based on our findings above, OBB-HP-β-CD SDDS proved to be an excellent drug delivery system for increasing the solubility, dissolution, bioavailability, and anti-hyperuricemic potency of OBB.

Intestines-erythrocytes-mediated bio-disposition deciphers the hypolipidemic effect of berberine from Rhizoma Coptidis: A neglected insight

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhizoma Coptidis (RC), the dried rhizome of Coptis Chinensis Franch., can dispel dampness and heat within the body and has been traditionally used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD)-associated problems including hyperlipidemia in China. Berberine (BBR) is the main active component of RC, which has been shown to possess significant therapeutic potential. However, only 0.14% of BBR is metabolized in the liver, and the extremely low bioavailability (<1%) and blood concentration of BBR in experimental and clinical settings is insufficient to achieve the effects as observed under in vitro conditions, which imposes challenges to explain its excellent pharmacological actions. Intense efforts are currently being devoted to defining its specific pharmacological molecular targets, while the exploration from the perspective of its pharmacokinetic disposition has rarely been reported to date, which could hardly make a comprehensive understanding of its hypolipidemic enigma.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study made a pioneering endeavor to unveil the hypolipidemic mechanism of BBR from RC focusing on its unique intestines-erythrocytes-mediated bio-disposition.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fate of BBR in intestines and erythrocytes was probed by a rapid and sensitive LC/MS-IT-TOF method. To analyze the disposition of BBR, a reliable HPLC method was subsequently developed and validated for simultaneous determination of BBR and its key active metabolite oxyberberine (OBB) in whole blood, tissues, and excreta. Meanwhile, the enterohepatic circulation (BDC) of BBR and OBB was verified by bile duct catheterization rats. Finally, lipid overloading models of L02 and HepG2 cells were employed to probe the lipid-lowering activity of BBR and OBB at in vivo concentration.

RESULTS

The results showed that BBR underwent biotransformation in both intestines and erythrocytes, and converted into the major metabolite oxyberberine (OBB). The AUC_0-t ratio of total BBR to OBB was approximately 2:1 after oral administration. Besides, the AUC_0-t ratio of bound BBR to its unbound counterpart was 4.6:1, and this ratio of OBB was 2.5:1, indicative of abundant binding-type form in the blood. Liver dominated over other organs in tissue distribution. BBR was excreted in bile, while the excretion of OBB in feces was significantly higher than that in bile. Furthermore, the bimodal phenomenon of both BBR and OBB disappeared in BDC rats and the AUC_0-t was significantly lower than that in the sham-operated control rats. Interestingly, OBB significantly decreased triglycerides and cholesterol levels in lipid overloading models of L02 and HepG2 cells at in vivo-like concentration, which was superior to the prodrug BBR.

CONCLUSIONS

Cumulatively, BBR underwent unique extrahepatic metabolism and disposition into OBB by virtue of intestines and erythrocytes. BBR and OBB were mainly presented and transported in the protein-bound form within the circulating erythrocytes, potentially resulting in hepatocyte targeting accompanied by obvious enterohepatic circulation. The unique extrahepatic disposition of BBR via intestines and erythrocytes conceivably contributed enormously to its hypolipidemic effect. OBB was the important material basis for the hypolipidemic effect of BBR and RC.

Anti-Inflammatory Activation of Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex is Mediated by Berberine Erythrocytes Self-Assembly Targeted Delivery System

Background

Berberine (BBR) is the primary active component of Phellodendri Chinensis Cortex (PCC), which has been traditionally used to treat inflammatory diseases. However, the discrepancy between its low bioavailability and significant therapeutic effect remains obscure. The purpose of this study was to explore the previously unsolved enigma of the low bioavailability of BBR and its appreciable anti-inflammatory effect to reveal the action mechanism of BBR and PCC.

Methods

The quantitative analysis of BBR and its metabolite oxyberberine (OBB) in blood and tissues was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography to investigate the conversion and distribution of BBR/OBB mediated by erythrocytes. Routine blood tests and immunohistochemical staining were used to explore the potential relationship between the amounts of monocyte/macrophage and the drug concentration in erythrocytes and tissues (liver, heart, spleen, lung, kidney, intestine, muscle, brain and pancreas). To comparatively explore the anti-inflammatory effects of BBR and OBB, the acetic acid-induced vascular permeability mice model and lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages were employed.

Results

Nearly 92% of BBR existed in the erythrocytes in rats. The partition coefficient of BBR between plasma and erythrocytes (Kp/b) decreased with time. OBB was found to be the oxidative metabolite of BBR in erythrocytes. Proportion of BBR/OBB in erythrocytes changed from 9.38% to 16.30% and from 13.50% to 46.24%, respectively. There was a significant relationship between the BBR/OBB concentration in blood and monocyte depletion after a single administration of BBR. BBR/OBB was transported via erythrocytes to various tissues (liver, kidney, spleen, lung, and heart, etc), with the liver achieving the highest concentration. OBB exhibited similar anti-inflammatory effect in vitro and in vivo as BBR with much smaller dosage.

Conclusion

BBR was prodominantly found in erythrocytes, which was critically participated in the biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, metabolism and target delivery of BBR and its metabolite. The anti-inflammatory activity of BBR and PCC was intimately associated with the metabolism into the active congener OBB and the targeted delivery to monocytes/macrophages mediated by the erythrocytes.

In vitro and in vivo hypoglycemia effect of oxyberberine, a novel HO-1 agonist: A renewed evidence linking HO-1 to diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Oxyberberine (OBB), an important in vivo metabolite of berberine, exerts superior hypoglycemia effect. However, the underlying mechanism remains obscure. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) holds a crucial status in the pathogenesis of diabetes. Previous research has indicated that OBB can specifically bind to hemoglobin and significantly up-regulated the HO-1 expression in diabetic rat. Based on cellular protection features of HO-1, this work aimed to probe the anti-diabetic effect of OBB and the association with the potential induction of HO-1 expression.

METHODS

A type 2 diabetic mellitus rat model was established. Glucolipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity were analyzed. Immunohistochemistry, Western blotting and in silico simulations were also performed.

RESULTS

Administration of OBB or HO-1 inducer hemin significantly reduced fasting blood glucose level, blood fat, and inflammatory cytokine levels, while increased antioxidant capacity of pancreas. Meanwhile, OBB treatment remarkably stimulated liver glycogenesis and inhibited gluconeogenesis. Besides, OBB improved the glucose utilizing of muscle. Noteworthily, OBB inhibited the islet cell apoptosis and improved pancreatic function. In addition, OBB effectively improved the consumption of glucose in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells. Moreover, OBB also reduced oxidative stress, promoted glucose-elicited insulin secretion and enhanced expression of β-cell function proteins in INS-1 cells. Nevertheless, these effects were significantly reversed by treatment with Zincprotoporphrin (ZnPP). Additionally, in silico simulations indicated that OBB exhibited superior affinity with HO-1.

CONCLUSION

OBB effectively ameliorated hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance, improved oral glucose tolerance, and maintained glucose metabolism homeostasis, at least in part, by promoting HO-1-mediated activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase / protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways. These data eloquently suggest that OBB, as a novel HO-1 agonist, has good potential to be a promising candidate drug for the management of diabetes, and support a therapeutic role of HO-1 induction in diabetes that potentially paves the way to translational research.

Protective effect of oxyberberine against acute lung injury in mice via inhibiting RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI), hallmarked with alveolar epithelial barrier impairment and pulmonary edema induced by acute inflammation, presents a severe health burden to the public, due to the limited available interventions. Oxyberberine (OBB), having improved anti-inflammatory activity and safety, is a representative component with various activities derived from berberine, whereas its role against ALI with alveolar epithelial barrier injury remains uncertain. To investigate the influence and underlying mechanisms of OBB on ALI, we induced acute inflammation in mice and A549 cells by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Changes in alveolar permeability were assessed by analyzing lung histopathology, measuring the dry/wet weight ratio of the lungs, and altering proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophils levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Parameters of pulmonary permeability were assessed through ELISA, western blotting, quantitative real-time PCR, and immunofluorescence analysis. U46619, the agonist of RhoA/ROCK, was employed to further investigate the mechanism of OBB on ALI. Unexpectedly, we found OBB mitigated lung impairment, pulmonary edema, inflammatory reactions in BALF and lung tissue, reduction in ZO-1, and addition of connexin-43. Besides, OBB markedly reduced the expression of RhoA in association with its downstream factors, which are linked to the intercellular junctions and permeability both in vivo and in vitro. Nevertheless, U46619 abolished the benefits obtained from OBB in A549 cells. In conclusion, these outcomes indicated that OBB exerted RhoA/ROCK inhibitor-like effect to moderate alveolar epithelial barrier impairment and permeability, ultimately preventing ALI progression.

Oxyberberine, a novel HO-1 agonist, effectively ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammatory response in LPS/D-GalN induced acute liver injury mice via coactivating erythrocyte metabolism and Nrf2 signaling pathway

Oxyberberine (OBB), a main gut-mediated metabolite of Phellodendron chinense Cortex (PC), exhibits prominent protective property against acute liver injury (ALI). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a vital molecule in attenuating acute and chronic liver injury for its prominent anti-oxidative injury and anti-inflammation properties. The present study was performed to investigate the hepatoprotective role of OBB through HO-1 signaling pathway in lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine (LPS/D-GalN) induced ALI. Our results indicated that PC treatment improved survival rate and its metabolite OBB evidently improved histopathological deteriorations and liver function. Additionally, OBB dramatically ameliorated hepatic oxidative stress and inflammation. Besides, OBB exerted remarkable HO-1 agonistic activity, even be comparable to hemin (a HO-1 inducer), as evidenced by increased HO-1 level, carbon monoxide and bilirubin activities, which are the markers of erythrocyte metabolism. Moreover, OBB modulated the parameters of inflammation and oxidative stress through HO-1 dependent pathway. Beyond this, OBB also notably suppressed the translocation of p65, enhanced antioxidation defense genes expressions, promoted the degradation of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). In conclusion, OBB could be the principle active metabolite substance of PC and exert excellent hepatoprotective effects via inducing HO-1 through coactivation of erythrocyte metabolism and Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Berberine: A Review of its Pharmacokinetics Properties and Therapeutic Potentials in Diverse Vascular Diseases

Traditional Chinese medicine plays a significant role in the treatment of various diseases and has attracted increasing attention for clinical applications. Vascular diseases affecting vasculature in the heart, cerebrovascular disease, atherosclerosis, and diabetic complications have compromised quality of life for affected individuals and increase the burden on health care services. Berberine, a naturally occurring isoquinoline alkaloid form Rhizoma coptidis, is widely used in China as a folk medicine for its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Promisingly, an increasing number of studies have identified several cellular and molecular targets for berberine, indicating its potential as an alternative therapeutic strategy for vascular diseases, as well as providing novel evidence that supports the therapeutic potential of berberine to combat vascular diseases. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively and systematically describe the evidence for berberine as a therapeutic agent in vascular diseases, including its pharmacological effects, molecular mechanisms, and pharmacokinetics. According to data published so far, berberine shows remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and antiautophagic activity via the regulation of multiple signaling pathways, including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase silent information regulator 1 (SIRT-1), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), vascular endothelial growth factor phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), janus kinase 2 (JAK-2), Ca²⁺ channels, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Moreover, we discuss the existing limitations of berberine in the treatment of vascular diseases, and give corresponding measures. In addition, we propose some research perspectives and challenges, and provide a solid evidence base from which further studies can excavate novel effective drugs from Chinese medicine monomers.

The discovery of berberine erythrocyte-hemoglobin self-assembly delivery system: a neglected carrier underlying its pharmacokinetics

Berberine (BBR) has extremely low concentration and high tissue distribution. However, current pharmacokinetic studies predominantly focus on its concentration in plasma, which could hardly make a comprehensive understanding of its pharmacokinetic process. This study made a pioneering endeavor to explore the erythrocyte-hemoglobin (Hb) self-assembly system of BBR by exploring the interaction of BBR with erythrocyte and the combination of BBR with Hb. Results showed that BBR had a low bioavailability (C₀ = 2.833 μg/mL via intravenous administration of 2.5 mg/kg BBR and C_max = 0.260 μg/mL via oral administration of 400 mg/kg BBR). Besides, BBR achieved higher concentrations in erythrocytes than plasma, and the erythrocytes count and Hb content were significantly decreased after intravenous administration. Hemolysis rate indicated the BBR-erythrocyte system (with 2% erythrocytes) was relatively stable without hemolysis at the concentration of 1.00 mg/mL. And the maximum percentage of drug loading was 100% when the BBR-erythrocyte concentration was 0.185 μg/mL. Furthermore, incubation of BBR and erythrocytes resulted in internalization of the erythrocyte membrane and the formation of intracellular vacuoles. The thermodynamic parameters indicated that the binding process of bovine hemoglobin (BHB) and BBR was spontaneous. UV-vis absorption spectra, synchronous fluorescence, circular dichroism and Raman spectra collectively indicated that BBR showed strong binding affinity toward BHB and affected the molecular environment of residues like tryptophan and tyrosine in BHB, resulting in the conformational changes of its secondary and tertiary structure. Molecular docking indicated BBR interacted with Arg-141 residue of BHB via hydrogen bond with the bond length of 2.55 Å. The ΔG value of the BHB-BBR system was −31.79 kJ/mol. Molecular dynamics simulation indicated the root mean square derivation of BBR-BHB was <0.025 nm, suggestive of stable conformation. Cumulatively, there was an erythrocyte-Hb self-assembled drug delivery system after oral or intravenous administration of BBR, which conceivably gained novel insight into the discrepancy between the extremely low plasma concentration and relatively high tissue concentration of BBR.