Host defense proteins on the surface of neonatal skin: implications for innate immunity

Longitudinal Correlations between Molecular Compositions of Stratum Corneum and Breast Milk Factors during Infancy: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study

Breast milk contains numerous factors that are involved in the maturation of the immune system and development of the gut microbiota in infants. These factors include transforming growth factor-β1 and 2, immunoglobin A, and lactoferrin. Breast milk factors may also affect epidermal differentiation and the stratum corneum (SC) barrier in infants, but no studies examining these associations over time during infancy have been reported. In this single-center exploratory study, we measured the molecular components of the SC using confocal Raman spectroscopy at 0, 1, 2, 6, and 12 months of age in 39 infants born at our hospital. Breast milk factor concentrations from their mothers' breast milk were determined. Correlation coefficients for the two datasets were estimated for each molecular component of the SC and breast milk factor at each age and SC depth. The results showed that breast milk factors and molecular components of the SC during infancy were partly correlated with infant age in months and SC depth, suggesting that breast milk factors influence the maturation of the SC components. These findings may improve understanding of the pathogenesis of skin diseases associated with skin barrier abnormalities.

How do the skin barrier and microbiome adapt to the extra-uterine environment after birth? Implications for the clinical practice

The multiple protective functions of the skin derive from the interactions between epithelial skin and immune cells as well as the commensal microbiota. Developed in the last trimester of intra-uterine life, the skin barrier adapts dynamically after birth. Specific differences in the structure and physiology have been disclosed between infant and adult skin. The stratum corneum of infants is thinner and structured by thicker corneocytes with a more anisotropic surface in comparison to adult skin. Lower levels of the natural moisturizing factor and its constituents, together with the increased protease activity in the epidermis result in dry baby skin and ongoing adaptation of the desquamation to the extra-uterine environment. Infant epidermis is characterized by an accelerated proliferation rate and clinically competent permeability barrier in term neonates, despite the higher baseline values of transepidermal water loss in infants. The skin surface of newborns is less acidic, which could increase susceptibility to diaper and atopic dermatitis. Immediately after birth, skin is colonized by commensal bacteria-a process dependent on the mode of delivery and of major importance for the maturation of the immune system. Skin bacterial diversity and dysbiosis have been related to different pathology such as atopic and seborrheic dermatitis. This paper focuses on the ongoing structural, functional and biochemical adaptation of the human skin barrier after birth. We discuss the interactions on the 'skin barrier/ microbiota/ immune system' axis and their role in the development of competent functional integrity of the epidermal barrier.

Early life host-microbe interactions in skin

Our skin is the interface through which we mediate lifelong interactions with our surrounding environment. Initial development of the skin's epidermis, adnexal structures, and barrier function is necessary for normal cutaneous microbial colonization, immune development, and prevention of disease. Early life microbial exposures can have unique and long-lasting impacts on skin health. The identity of neonatal skin microbes and the context in which they are first encountered, i.e., through a compromised skin barrier or in conjunction with cutaneous inflammation, can have additional short- and long-term health consequences. Here, we discuss key attributes of infant skin and endogenous and exogenous factors that shape its relationship to the early life cutaneous microbiome, with a focus on their clinical implications.

Look Who's Talking: Host and Pathogen Drivers of Staphylococcus epidermidis Virulence in Neonatal Sepsis

Preterm infants are at increased risk for invasive neonatal bacterial infections. S. epidermidis, a ubiquitous skin commensal, is a major cause of late-onset neonatal sepsis, particularly in high-resource settings. The vulnerability of preterm infants to serious bacterial infections is commonly attributed to their distinct and developing immune system. While developmentally immature immune defences play a large role in facilitating bacterial invasion, this fails to explain why only a subset of infants develop infections with low-virulence organisms when exposed to similar risk factors in the neonatal ICU. Experimental research has explored potential virulence mechanisms contributing to the pathogenic shift of commensal S. epidermidis strains. Furthermore, comparative genomics studies have yielded insights into the emergence and spread of nosocomial S. epidermidis strains, and their genetic and functional characteristics implicated in invasive disease in neonates. These studies have highlighted the multifactorial nature of S. epidermidis traits relating to pathogenicity and commensalism. In this review, we discuss the known host and pathogen drivers of S. epidermidis virulence in neonatal sepsis and provide future perspectives to close the gap in our understanding of S. epidermidis as a cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality.

The infantile cutaneous microbiome: A review

Recent focus on the neonatal intestinal microbiome has advanced our knowledge of the complex interplay between the intestinal barrier, the developing immune system, and commensal and pathogenic organisms. Despite the parallel role of the infant skin in serving as both a barrier and an interface for priming the immune system, large gaps exist in our understanding of the infantile cutaneous microbiome. The skin microbiome changes and matures throughout infancy, becoming more diverse and developing the site specificity known to exist in adults. Delivery method initially determines the composition of the cutaneous microbiome, though this impact appears transient. Cutaneous microbes play a critical role in immune system development, particularly during the neonatal period, and microbes and immune cells have closely intertwined, reciprocal effects. The unique structure of newborn skin influences cutaneous microbial colonization and the development of dermatologic pathology. The development of the infantile skin barrier and cutaneous microbiome contributes to future skin pathology. Atopic dermatitis flares and seborrheic dermatitis have been linked to dysbiosis, while erythema toxicum neonatorum is an immune response to the establishment of normal bacterial skin flora. Physicians who care for infants should be aware of the impact of the infantile skin microbiome and its role in the development of pathology. A better understanding of the origin and evolution of the skin microbiome will lead to more effective prevention and treatment of pediatric skin disease.

Postnatal Innate Immune Development: From Birth to Adulthood

It is well established that adaptive immune responses are deficient in early life, contributing to increased mortality and morbidity. The developmental trajectories of different components of innate immunity are only recently being explored. Individual molecules, cells, or pathways of innate recognition and signaling, within different compartments/anatomical sites, demonstrate variable maturation patterns. Despite some discrepancies among published data, valuable information is emerging, showing that the developmental pattern of cytokine responses during early life is age and toll-like receptor specific, and may be modified by genetic and environmental factors. Interestingly, specific environmental exposures have been linked both to innate function modifications and the occurrence of chronic inflammatory disorders, such as respiratory allergies. As these conditions are on the rise, our knowledge on innate immune development and its modulating factors needs to be expanded. Improved understanding of the sequence of events associated with disease onset and persistence will lead toward meaningful interventions. This review describes the state-of-the-art on normal postnatal innate immune ontogeny and highlights research areas that are currently explored or should be further addressed.

Bathing and Beyond: Current Bathing Controversies for Newborn Infants

BACKGROUND

Bathing the newborn infant is controversial, ranging from how and when to give the newborn their first bath, whether to bathe newborns at all in the initial days of life, and how to approach bathing the hospitalized premature and full-term infant in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

PURPOSE

To review relevant literature about bathing newborn infants, as well as examine the controversies about bathing NICU patients including the use of daily chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) baths.

FINDINGS

Despite studies showing that temperature can be maintained when the first bath was at 1 hour after delivery, there are benefits from delaying the bath including improved breastfeeding. Tub or immersion bathing improves temperature, and is less stressful. It is not necessary to bathe infants every day, and premature infants can be bathed as little as every 4 days without an increase in skin colonization. No differences have been reported in skin parameters such as pH, transepidermal water loss, and stratum corneum hydration whether the first and subsequent baths are given using water alone or water and a mild baby cleanser. Concerns about systemic absorption suggests caution about widespread practice of daily CHG bathing in the NICU until it is known whether CHG crosses the blood-brain barrier, particularly in premature infants.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Research regarding bathing practices for NICU patients should be evidence-based whenever possible, such as the benefits of immersion bathing. More evidence about the risks and benefits of daily CHG bathing is needed before this practice is widely disseminated.

Commonly Employed African Neonatal Skin Care Products Compromise Epidermal Function in Mice

BACKGROUND

Neonatal mortality is much higher in the developing world than in developed countries. Infections are a major cause of neonatal death, particularly in preterm infants, in whom defective epidermal permeability barrier function facilitates transcutaneous pathogen invasion. The objective was to determine whether neonatal skin care products commonly used in Africa benefit or compromise epidermal functions in murine skin.

METHODS

After twice-daily treatment of 6- to 8-week-old hairless mice with each skin care product for 3 days, epidermal permeability barrier function, skin surface pH, stratum corneum hydration, and barrier recovery were measured using a multiprobe adapter system physiology monitor. For products showing some benefits in these initial tests, the epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis was assessed 1 and 5 hours after a single application to acutely disrupted skin.

RESULTS

All of the skin care products compromised basal permeability barrier function and barrier repair kinetics. Moreover, after 3 days of treatment, most of the products also reduced stratum corneum hydration while elevating skin surface pH to abnormal levels.

CONCLUSION

Some neonatal skin care products that are widely used in Africa perturb important epidermal functions, including permeability barrier homeostasis in mice. Should these products have similar effects on newborn human skin, they could cause a defective epidermal permeability barrier, which can increase body fluid loss, impair thermoregulation, and contribute to the high rates of neonatal morbidity and mortality seen in Africa. Accordingly, alternative products that enhance permeability barrier function should be identified, particularly for use in preterm infants.

Antimicrobial Proteins and Peptides in Early Life: Ontogeny and Translational Opportunities

While developing adaptive immune responses, young infants are especially vulnerable to serious infections, including sepsis, meningitis, and pneumonia. Antimicrobial proteins and peptides (APPs) are key effectors that function as broad-spectrum anti-infectives. This review seeks to summarize the clinically relevant functional qualities of APPs and the increasing clinical trial evidence for their use to combat serious infections in infancy. Levels of APPs are relatively low in early life, especially in infants born preterm or with low birth weight (LBW). There are several rationales for the potential clinical utility of APPs in the prevention and treatment of infections in infants: (a) APPs may be most helpful in those with reduced levels; (b) during sepsis microbial products signal via pattern recognition receptors causing potentially harmful inflammation that APPs may counteract; and (c) in the era of antibiotic resistance, development of new anti-infective strategies is essential. Evidence supports the potential clinical utility of exogenous APPs to reduce infection-related morbidity in infancy. Further studies should characterize the ontogeny of antimicrobial activity in mucosal and systemic compartments, and examine the efficacy of exogenous-APP formulations to inform translational development of APPs for infant groups.

Current Neonatal Skin Care Practices in Four African Sites

Data for this study on skin care practices and emollient use in four African sites were collected using in-depth interviews, focus-group discussions and observations. Respondents were mothers, grandmothers, fathers, health workers, birth attendants and people selling skin-care products. Analysis included content and framework analyses.Emollient use was a normative practice in all sites, with frequent application from an early age in most sites. There were variations in the type of emollients used, but reasons for use were similar and included improving the skin, keeping the baby warm, softening/strengthening the joints/bones, shaping the baby, ensuring flexibility and encouraging growth and weight gain. Factors that influenced emollient choice varied and included social pressure, cost, availability and deep-rooted traditional norms. Massage associated with application was strong and potentially damaging to the skin in some sites.Given the widespread use of emollients, the repeated exposure of newborns in the first month of life and the potential impact of emollients on mortality, trials such as those that have been conducted in Asia are needed in a range of African settings.

Skin Physiology of the Neonate and Infant: Clinical Implications

Significance: The skin is a complex and dynamic organ that performs several vital functions. The maturation process of the skin starts at birth with the adaption of the skin to the comparatively dry environment compared to the in utero milieu. This adaptive flexibility results in the unique properties of infant skin. To deliver appropriate care to infant skin, it is necessary to understand that it is evolving with unique characteristics. Recent Advances: The role of biophysical noninvasive techniques in the assessment of skin development underlines the importance of an objective evaluation of skin physiology parameters. Skin hydration, transepidermal water loss, and pH values are measurable with specific instruments that give us an accurate and reproducible assessment during infant skin maturation. The recording of these values, following standard measurement procedures, allows us to evaluate the integrity of the skin barrier and to monitor the functionality of the maturing skin over time. Critical Issues: During the barrier development, impaired skin function makes the skin vulnerable to chemical damage, microbial infections, and skin diseases, possibly compromising the general health of the infant. Preterm newborns, during the first weeks of life, have an even less developed skin barrier and, therefore, are even more at risk. Thus, it is extremely important to evaluate the risk of infection, skin breakdown, topical agent absorption, and the risk of thermoregulation failure. Future Directions: Detailed and objective evaluations of infant skin maturation are necessary to improve infant skin care. The results of these evaluations should be formed into general protocols that will allow doctors and caregivers to give more personalized care to full-term newborns, preterm newborns, and infants.

Newborn infant skin: physiology, development, and care

Infant skin is critical to the newborn child's transition from the womb environment to the journey to self-sufficiency. This review provides an integrative perspective on the skin development in full term and premature infants. There is a particular focus on the role of vernix caseosa and on the implications of skin development for epidermal penetration of exogenous compounds. Healthy full-term newborn skin is well-developed and functional at birth, with a thick epidermis and well-formed stratum corneum (SC) layers. Transepidermal water loss is very low at birth, equal to, or lower than adults, indicating a highly effective skin barrier. Vernix facilitates SC development in full-term infants through a variety of mechanisms including physical protection from amniotic fluid and enzymes, antimicrobial effects, skin surface pH lowering, provision of lipids, and hydration. Premature infants, particularly those of very low birth weight, have a poor skin barrier with few cornified layers and deficient dermal proteins. They are at increased risk for skin damage, increased permeability to exogenous agents and infection. The SC barrier develops rapidly after birth but complete maturation requires weeks to months. The best methods for caring for infant skin, particularly in the diaper region, are described and related to these developmental changes.

Evolving concepts of neonatal skin

Skin barrier function is crucial to health. Importantly, the skin operates as an air-liquid, a liquid-liquid, and an immunological barrier. The skin's physical and chemical structures, as well as its microbiome, function to create, maintain, and repair this complex barrier.

The Ontogeny of Skin

Significance: During gestation, fetal skin progresses from a single layer derived from ectoderm to a complex, multi-layer tissue with the stratum corneum (SC) as the outermost layer. Innate immunity is a conferred complex process involving a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, structural proteins, and specific antigen-presenting cells. The SC is a part of the innate immune system as an impermeable physical barrier containing anti-microbial lipids and host defense proteins. Postnatally, the epidermis continually replenishes itself, provides a protective barrier, and repairs injuries. Recent Advances: Vernix caseosa protects the fetus during gestation and facilitates development of the SC in the aqueous uterine environment. The anti-infective, hydrating, acidification, and wound-healing properties post birth provide insights for the development of strategies that facilitate SC maturation and repair in the premature infant. Critical Issues: Reduction of infant mortality is a global health priority. Premature infants have an incompetent skin barrier putting them at risk for irritant exposure, skin compromise and life-threatening infections. Effective interventions to accelerate skin barrier maturation are compelling. Future Directions: Investigations to determine the ontogeny of barrier maturation, that is, SC structure, composition, cohesiveness, permeability, susceptibility to injury, and microflora, as a function of gestational age are essential. Clinicians need to know when the premature skin barrier becomes fully competent and comparable to healthy newborn skin. This will guide the development of innovative strategies for optimizing skin barrier development.

Biology and function of fetal and pediatric skin

The development of the integumentary system is a series of events that starts in utero and continues throughout life. Although at birth, skin in full-term infants is anatomically mature, functional maturity develops during the first year of life. Pediatric skin transitions again with the onset of puberty. At each stage, there are changes in transepidermal water loss, skin hydration, and skin acidity that define the specific period of development.

Neonatal sepsis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci

Neonates, especially those born prematurely, are at high risk of morbidity and mortality from sepsis. Multiple factors, including prematurity, invasive life-saving medical interventions, and immaturity of the innate immune system, put these infants at greater risk of developing infection. Although advanced neonatal care enables us to save even the most preterm neonates, the very interventions sustaining those who are hospitalized concurrently expose them to serious infections due to common nosocomial pathogens, particularly coagulase-negative staphylococci bacteria (CoNS). Moreover, the health burden from infection in these infants remains unacceptably high despite continuing efforts. In this paper, we review the epidemiology, immunological risk factors, diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and outcomes of neonatal infection due to the predominant neonatal pathogen CoNS.

The immunologic basis for severe neonatal herpes disease and potential strategies for therapeutic intervention

Herpes simplex viruses types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) infect a large proportion of the world's population. Infection is life-long and can cause periodic mucocutaneous symptoms, but it only rarely causes life-threatening disease among immunocompetent children and adults. However, when HSV infection occurs during the neonatal period, viral replication is poorly controlled and a large proportion of infants die or develop disability even with optimal antiviral therapy. Increasingly, specific differences are being elucidated between the immune system of newborns and those of older children and adults, which predispose to severe infections and reflect the transition from fetal to postnatal life. Studies in healthy individuals of different ages, individuals with primary or acquired immunodeficiencies, and animal models have contributed to our understanding of the mechanisms that control HSV infection and how these may be impaired during the neonatal period. This paper outlines our current understanding of innate and adaptive immunity to HSV infection, immunologic differences in early infancy that may account for the manifestations of neonatal HSV infection, and the potential of interventions to augment neonatal immune protection against HSV disease.

Role of innate host defenses in susceptibility to early-onset neonatal sepsis

Neonatal sepsis continues to take a devastating toll globally. Although adequate to protect against invasive infection in most newborns, the distinct function of neonatal innate host defense coupled with impairments in adaptive immune responses increases the likelihood of acquiring infection early in life, with subsequent rapid dissemination and death. Unique differences exist between neonates and older populations with respect to the capacity, quantity, and quality of innate host responses to pathogens. Recent characterization of the age-dependent maturation of neonatal innate immune function has identified novel translational approaches that may lead to improved diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic modalities.

Biomarkers of epidermal innate immunity in premature and full-term infants

Epidermal innate immunity is a complex process involving a balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, structural proteins, and specific antigen presenting cells occurring against a background of neuroendocrine modulators such as cortisol. In this study, a multiplex array system was used to simultaneously determine multiple molecular factors critical for development of epidermal innate immune function from the skin surface of premature and term infants, healthy adults, and vernix caseosa. Samples were analyzed for Keratin 1,10,11, Keratin 6, involucrin, albumin, fibronectin and cortisol, and cytokines IL-1, TNFalpha, IL-6, IL-8, MCP1, IP10, IFNgamma, and IL-1 receptor antagonist. Keratin 1,10,11 was decreased and involucrin was increased in infants versus adults. All infants had elevated IL1alpha and reduced TNFalpha versus adults. IL-6, IL-8, and MCP1 were significantly increased in premature versus term infants and adults. Skin surface cortisol and albumin were significantly elevated in premature infants. The biomarker profile in premature infants was unique with differences in structural proteins, albumin, and cytokines IL-6, IL-1beta, IL-8, and MCP1. The higher infant IL1alpha may be associated with skin barrier maturation. The significant elevations in skin surface cortisol for preterm infants may reflect a neuroendocrine response to the stress of premature birth.

Immunobiology of herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus infections of the fetus and newborn

Immunologic "immaturity" is often blamed for the increased susceptibility of newborn humans to infection, but the precise mechanisms and details of immunologic development remain somewhat obscure. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) are two of the more common severe infectious agents of the fetal and newborn periods. HSV infection in the newborn most commonly occurs after exposure to the virus during delivery, and can lead to a spectrum of clinical disease ranging from isolated skin-eye-mucous membrane infection to severe disseminated multiorgan disease, often including encephalitis. In contrast to HSV, clinically severe CMV infections early in life are usually acquired during the intrauterine period. These infections can result in a range of clinical disease, including hearing loss and neurodevelopmental delay. However, term newborns infected with CMV after delivery are generally asymptomatic, and older children and adults often acquire infection with HSV or CMV with either no or mild clinical symptoms. The reasons for these widely variable clinical presentations are not completely understood, but likely relate to developmental differences in immune responses.This review summarizes recent human and animal studies of the immunologic response of the fetus and newborn to these two infections, in comparison to the responses of older children and adults. The immunologic defense of the newborn against each virus is considered under the broader categories of (i) the placental barrier to infection, (ii) skin and mucosal barriers (including antimicrobial peptides), (iii) innate responses, (iv) humoral responses, and (v) cellular responses. A specific focus is made on recent studies of innate and cellular immunity to HSV and CMV.

The mother's immune system is a balanced threat to the foetus, turning to protection of the neonate

Immunological tolerance by the mother prevents rejection of the foetus, but aberrations may increase risk of abnormalities like spontaneous abortion, or foetal growth restriction. The neonate is normally colonized with mother's gut microflora, mainly composed of protective anaerobes. This least threatening form of microbial colonization of the neonate, is impaired by sectio delivery, but supported by breastfeeding. Mother's transplacental IgG, secretory IgA and other milk components help protect the neonate together with its own slowly expanding immune system.

CONCLUSION

The mother's immune system tolerates her foetus via several mechanisms. Failure to do so may cause foetal growth retardation, or spontaneous abortion. The mother and the neonate cooperate in preventing infections in the offspring.

Recent advances in diaper dermatitis: etiology and treatment

Diaper dermatitis is a highly prevalent condition that causes discomfort and stress for patients and frustration for healthcare staff. Diaper technology has evolved to substantially lessen the severity of diaper dermatitis, but additional improvements are needed. Premature infants and incontinent adults are particularly at risk for developing diaper dermatitis and its potential consequences. Contributing factors include overhydration, irritants, friction, increased skin pH, diet, gestational age, antibiotic use, diarrhea and medical condition. Treatments aim to reduce hydration, provide a semipermeable ‘layer’ to facilitate skin barrier repair, shield the skin from irritants, deactivate specific fecal components and maintain skin surface contact. The published research on the effects of diaper dermatitis treatments is especially sparse. Controlled clinical trials are needed to provide definitive evidence for selection of effective treatments. This article discusses the incidence and etiology of diaper dermatitis in infants and adults. It provides the scientific basis for repair of diaper skin barrier damage and describes recent developments that will be available in the future.

[What's new in pediatric dermatology?]

The main selected articles in pediatric dermatology covered the following topics: development and maturation of the epidermal barrier in the neonate, iatrogenic events in the neonatal ICU, diagnostic value of minor birthmarks, complications, risk factors and treatment of hemangiomas, coagulopathy in venous malformations, epidemiology and dermoscopy of congenital and acquired melanocytic nevi in childhood, growth of the body surface area, new pathogenic concepts and treatment in atopic dermatitis, the impact of filaggrin deficiency, hereditary factors in Kawasaki disease, severe and drug resistant cases, management of juvenile dermatomyositis, treatment of childhood psoriasis with biologics, the new classification of epidermolysis bullosa and therapeutic approach with cell therapy, neurological impairment in xeroderma pigmentosum, behavioural anomalies in X-linked ichthyosis, guidelines for neurofibromatosis type I, the genetics of an hereditary hypotrichosis, infantile acne, rosacea in childhood, mast cell disease management and, last but not least, treatment of hair lice with silicone.