Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection among Children with Intestinal Failure Presenting to the Emergency Department with Fever

Administration of 4% tetrasodium EDTA lock solution and central venous catheter complications in high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Selection of central venous catheter (CVC) lock solution impacts catheter mechanical complications and central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) in pediatric patients with intestinal failure. Disadvantages of the current clinical standards, heparin and ethanol lock therapy (ELT), led to the discovery of new lock solutions. High-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure who lost access to ELT during a recent shortage were offered enrollment in a compassionate use trial with 4% tetrasodium EDTA (T-EDTA), a lock solution with antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and antithrombotic properties.

METHODS

We performed a descriptive cohort study including 14 high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure receiving 4% T-EDTA as a daily catheter lock solution. CVC complications were documented (repairs, occlusions, replacements, and CLABSIs). Complication rates on 4% T-EDTA were compared with baseline rates, during which patients were receiving either heparin or ELT (designated as heparin/ELT).

RESULTS

Patients initiated 4% T-EDTA at the time they were enrolled in the compassionate use protocol. Use of 4% T-EDTA resulted in a 50% reduction in CVC complications, compared with baseline rates on heparin/ELT (incidence rate ratio: 0.50; 95% CI, 0.25-1.004; P = 0.051).

CONCLUSION

In a compassionate use protocol for high-risk pediatric patients with intestinal failure, the use of 4% T-EDTA reduced composite catheter complications, including those leading to emergency department visits, hospital admissions, additional procedures, and mortality. This outcome suggests 4% T-EDTA has benefits over currently available lock solutions.

Characterization of initial CLABSI culture results to support antimicrobial de-escalation in pediatric GI inpatients

OBJECTIVES

Central Line-associated Bloodstream Infections (CLABSIs) pose a serious mortality and morbidity risk. An institutional protocol was developed for the evaluation and empirical antibiotic treatment of possible CLABSIs. The potential impact of de-escalating antimicrobial therapy based on initial Gram stain and molecular identification was assessed.

METHODS

All positive blood cultures from patients admitted to the gastroenterology service at a large pediatric medical center were collected from 1/1/14 to 12/31/20. Cultures that were negative, repeated, or causative organisms that were unable to be identified with susceptibility data were excluded. Timepoints and organism(s) from each culture were recorded. Polymicrobial cultures were classified as containing only gram-positive organisms (polymicrobial GP), only gram-negative organisms (polymicrobial GN), or mixed spectrum.

RESULTS

During the 6-year period, 361 positive blood cultures were included in the study. Single isolates were identified in 79.5% (287/361) of cultures. Polymicrobial cultures from confirmed central line source accounted for 15.0% (54/361), with 6.4% (23/361) Polymicrobial GP, 4.4% (16/361) Polymicrobial GN, and 4.2% (15/361) being mixed-spectrum cultures. Both organism types were detected on initial gram-stain in 40% (6/15) of the mixed-spectrum cultures, another 26.7% (4/15) had the opposite-spectrum organism identified within an average of <3 h and the remaining 33.3% (5/15) had the opposite-spectrum organism identified by culture growth.

CONCLUSIONS

Polymicrobial mixed-spectrum cultures accounted for <5% of positive blood cultures and most isolates were identified within 3 h of first positivity. This may allow for further investigation of early de-escalation of therapy for this population and limit antimicrobial exposure.

From intestinal failure to transplantation: Review on the current need for transplant indications under multidisciplinary transplant programs worldwide

INTRODUCTION

Intestinal failure, defined as the loss of gastrointestinal function to the point where nutrition cannot be maintained by enteral intake alone, presents numerous challenges in children, not least the timing of consideration of intestine transplantation.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the evolution of care of infants and children with intestinal failure including parenteral nutrition, intestine transplantation, and contemporary intestinal failure care.

METHODS

The review is based on the authors' experience supported by an in-depth review of the published literature.

RESULTS

The history of parenteral nutrition, including out-patient (home) administration, and intestine transplantation are reviewed along with the complications of intestinal failure that may become indications for consideration of intestine transplantation. Current management strategies for children with intestinal failure are discussed along with changes in need for intestine transplantation, recognizing the difficulty in generalizing recommendations due to the high level of heterogeneity of intestinal pathology and residual bowel anatomy and function.

DISCUSSION

Advances in the medical and surgical care of children with intestinal failure have resulted in improved transplant-free survival and a significant fall in demand for transplantation. Despite these improvements a number of children continue to fail rehabilitative care and require intestine transplantation as life-saving therapy or when the burden on ongoing parenteral nutrition becomes too great to bear.

About the Usage and Usability of Central Venous Catheters in Children with TPN: the Parents' Viewpoint

BACKGROUND

Medical devices are important components of medical care. Therefore, they must be safe and useful for patients. This study aimed to analyze the situation of children with central venous catheters (CVCs) for long-term parenteral nutrition from the parents' perspective with respect to patient safety and usefulness.

METHODS

An online cross-sectional survey was conducted using a quantitative research approach, with a German patient support group for children with chronic intestinal failure.

RESULTS

61 responses were collected between November 202 and January 2021. Concerning the usability of the CVCs, the caregivers assessed overall satisfaction, patient safety, usability, learnability of handling, "self-explanatory ability, " and mental load. Furthermore, various suggestions for improvements have been documented.

CONCLUSION

Although CVCs can cause a variety of complications in the context of long-term use, the usage for parents in everyday life is feasible. Insufficient fixation and protection outside of the body have been identified as unmet clinical needs. In addition to the underlying disease of chronic intestinal failure, the catheter adds an extra mental burden to families' lives. Furthermore, parents articulated the need for further information and training.

Immunosuppression Regimens for Intestinal Transplantation in Children

Pediatric intestinal transplant serves as the only definitive treatment for children with irreversible intestinal failure. Successful intestinal transplant hinges upon appropriate management of immunosuppression. The indications for intestinal transplant have changed over time. Immunosuppression regimens can be divided into induction and maintenance phases along with treatment of acute rejection. Intestinal transplant induction now often includes antithymocyte globulin or basiliximab in addition to corticosteroids. Maintenance regimens continue to be dominated by tacrolimus, with additional agents used to either decrease goal tacrolimus levels to limit toxicity or as an adjunct in sensitized patients. Careful monitoring can help to limit serious complications, such as rejection, infection, and malignancy. Future work will aim to decrease variation in practice and identify methods to determine optimal immunosuppression for a particular patient. Furthermore, there is a need for non-invasive monitoring of the intestinal graft and functional assessments of immunosuppression.

Challenges in the Multidisciplinary Management of Pediatric Patients with Intestinal Failure During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic had profound effects on the management of pediatric patients with intestinal failure. Limitations in personal protective equipment and other necessary supplies led to changes in home care of central venous catheters. Limitations for in-person clinic visits led to changes in care delivery systems and contributed to delays in care and delays in the progression toward enteral autonomy. The emotional strain of living with chronic illness during a pandemic caused hardships that are still being felt. Delays in surgical care also potentially delayed children weaning from parenteral nutrition. The global pandemic of COVID-19 and its far-reaching effects on society contributed to challenges and changes in the multidisciplinary care of pediatric patients with intestinal failure, of which the full effect is still unknown. [Pediatr Ann. 2022;51(7):e277-e280.].

How Broad Should Gram-Negative Coverage Be for Febrile Parenteral Nutrition Dependent Short Bowel Syndrome Patients?

Broader spectrum Gram-negative antibiotics are commonly utilized empirically for central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) in febrile short bowel syndrome (SBS) patients receiving home parenteral nutrition compared to those used empirically for inpatient-acquired CLABSI. This analysis reports 57 CLABSI in 22 patients with SBS admitted from the community and 78 inpatient-acquired CLABSI in 76 patients over a 5-year period. Proportional Gram-negative CLABSI was similar between the SBS and inpatient-acquired cohorts (43.8% vs42.3%, respectively, P  = 0.78). 1.8% and 10.3% (P = 0.125) of Gram-negative CLABSI were non-susceptible to ceftriaxone and 0% and 3.8% (P = 0.52) were non-susceptible to ceftazidime in the SBS and inpatient-acquired cohorts, respectively. In the SBS cohort, home ethanol lock therapy and prior culture results impacted Gramnegative pathogen distribution. Broader empiric Gram-negative coverage for CLABSI among SBS patients compared to inpatients is unnecessary. Third-generation cephalosporins represent appropriate empiric Gramnegative agents for febrile SBS patients presenting from the community to our institution.

Long-term assessment of bilirubin and transaminase trends in pediatric intestinal failure patients during the era of hepatoprotective parenteral nutrition

PURPOSE

This study aimed to characterize the relationship between hepatoprotective parenteral nutrition (PN) dependence and long-term serum liver tests in children with intestinal failure (IF).

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed of children with severe IF (> 90 consecutive days of PN) who were followed from 2012 to 2019 at a multidisciplinary intestinal rehabilitation program. Patients were stratified into three groups based on level of PN dependence at most recent follow up: EN (achieved enteral autonomy), mixed (parenteral and enteral nutrition), and PN (> 75% of caloric intake from PN). PN at any point for this cohort was hepatoprotective, defined as soy-based lipids < 1.5 g/kg/day, combination (soy, medium chain fatty acid, olive and fish oil) lipid emulsion, or fish oil-based lipid emulsion. Kaplan-Meier analysis and a generalized estimating equation (GEE) model were utilized to estimate time to normalization and trends, respectively, of two serum markers of liver health: direct bilirubin (DB) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT).

RESULTS

The study included 123 patients (67 EN, 32 mixed, 24 PN). Median follow up time was 4 years. Based on the Kaplan Meier curve, 100% of EN and mixed group patients achieved normal DB levels by 3 years, while 32% of the PN group had elevated DB levels (Fig. 1). At 5 years, 16% of EN patients had elevated ALT levels compared to 73% of PN patients (p < 0.001, Fig. 2). The PN group's ALT levels were 1.76-fold above normal at 3 years (95%CI 1.48-2.03) and 1.65-fold above normal at 5 years (95%CI 1.33-1.97, Fig. 3).

CONCLUSIONS

While serum bilirubin levels tend to normalize, long-term PN dependence in the era of hepatoprotective PN is associated with a persistent transaminase elevation in an overwhelming majority of patients. These data support continued vigilant monitoring of liver health in children with intestinal failure.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Prediction of the Development of Severe Sepsis Among Children With Intestinal Failure and Fever Presenting to the Emergency Department

OBJECTIVES

Children with intestinal failure (IF) and fever are frequently bacteremic, but risk factors for development of sepsis in this population are not well delineated. Our objective was to determine what clinical factors available on arrival to the emergency department (ED), including commonly used vital sign thresholds, predicted the subsequent development of severe sepsis in children with IF and fever.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective cohort study of children younger than 21 years with IF presenting to a tertiary care ED between 2010 and 2016 with fever who did not have hypotensive septic shock on arrival. The primary outcome was development of severe sepsis within 24 hours of ED arrival, as defined by consensus criteria. We identified predictors of severe sepsis using both univariate and multivariate models and calculated the test characteristics of 3 different sets of vital sign criteria in determining risk of severe sepsis.

RESULTS

In 26 (9.4%) of 278 encounters, the patient developed severe sepsis within 24 hours of arrival to the ED; 3 were excluded due to hypotensive shock on arrival. Predictors of severe sepsis included history of intestinal pseudo-obstruction (odds ratio, 8.2; 95% confidence interval, 2.3-30.2) and higher initial temperature (odds ratio, 1.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-2.3). The 3 sets of vital sign criteria had widely varying sensitivity and specificity in identifying development of severe sepsis.

CONCLUSIONS

History of intestinal pseudo-obstruction and higher fever predicted increased risk of severe sepsis among children with IF and fever presenting to an ED. No single set of vital sign criteria had both high sensitivity and specificity for this diagnosis.

Effectiveness of a central line associated blood stream infection protocol in a pediatric population

BACKGROUND

Central line associated bloodstream infections are a common cause of bacteremia and sepsis in pediatric patients with intestinal failure, secondary to long-term CVC use.

METHODS

An IRB approved retrospective chart review was conducted on TPN-dependent patients with IF who had an identified CLABSI and presented to Children's of Alabama's emergency department (ED) and were admitted to the hospital.

RESULTS

Forty-four patients were included in the study, 28 in the first 18-month period and 26 in the second, with 10 in both populations. After implementation, mean time from ED presentation to antibiotic ordered and ED admission to antibiotic administered were lower. Mean time between antibiotic administration and admission to the floor was greater, and number of infectious disease consultations was greater. Floor-ICU transfers were lower, readmissions within 30 days was similar, and mean length of stay was similar.

CONCLUSION

A collaborative, multidiscipline-supported protocol for the care of patients with IF presenting to the ED enhances efficiency of antibiotic ordering/administration, as well as reduces the number of unplanned floor-ICU transfers.

Management of Central Venous Access in Children With Intestinal Failure: A Position Paper From the NASPGHAN Intestinal Rehabilitation Special Interest Group

ABSTRACT

Intestinal failure requires the placement and maintenance of a long-term central venous catheter for the provision of fluids and/or nutrients. Complications associated with this access contribute to significant morbidity and mortality, while the loss of access is an increasingly common reason for intestinal transplant referral. As more emphasis has been placed on the prevention of central line-associated bloodstream infections and new technologies have developed, care for central lines has improved; however, because care has evolved independently in local centers, care of central venous access varies significantly in this vulnerable population. The present position paper from the Intestinal Failure Special Interest Group of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) reviews current evidence and provides recommendations for central line management in children with intestinal failure.

Optimizing Duration of Empiric Management of Suspected Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections in Pediatric Patients with Intestinal Failure

OBJECTIVES

To assess whether a 24-hour length of hospitalization and empiric antibiotic therapy to exclude central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) in children with intestinal failure is potentially as safe as 48 hours, which is the duration most commonly used but not evidence based.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective single-institution observational cohort study was conducted among pediatric patients with intestinal failure from July 1, 2015, through June 30, 2018, to identify episodes of suspected CLABSI. The primary end point was time from blood sampling to positive blood culture. Secondary end points included presenting symptoms, laboratory test results, responses to a parent/legal guardian-completed symptom survey, length of inpatient stay, costs, and charges.

RESULTS

Seventy-three patients with intestinal failure receiving nutritional support via central venous catheters enrolled; 35 were hospitalized with suspected CLABSI at least once during the study. There were 49 positive blood cultures confirming CLABSI in 128 episodes (38%). The median time from blood sampling to positive culture was 11.1 hours. The probability of a blood culture becoming positive after 24 hours was 2.3%. Elevated C-reactive protein and neutrophil predominance in white blood cell count were associated with positive blood cultures. Estimated cost savings by transitioning from a 48-hour to a 24-hour admission to rule-out CLABSI was $4639 per admission.

CONCLUSIONS

A 24-hour duration of empiric management to exclude CLABSI may be appropriate for patients with negative blood cultures and no clinically concerning signs. A multi-institutional study would more robustly differentiate patients safe for discharge after 24 hours from those who warrant longer empiric treatment.

Cost-effectiveness of teduglutide in pediatric patients with short bowel syndrome: Markov modeling using traditional cost-effectiveness criteria

BACKGROUND

Teduglutide use in pediatric patients with short bowel syndrome can aid in the achievement of enteral autonomy, but with a price of >$400,000 per y.

OBJECTIVE

The current study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of using teduglutide in conjunction with offering intestinal transplantation in US pediatric patients with short bowel syndrome.

DESIGN

A Markov model was used to evaluate the costs (in US dollars) and effectiveness [in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs)] of using teduglutide compared with offering intestinal transplantation. Parameters were estimated from published data where available. The primary effect modeled was the probability of weaning from parenteral nutrition while on teduglutide. Sensitivity analyses were performed on all model parameters.

RESULTS

Compared with offering only intestinal transplantation, adding teduglutide cost ${\$}$124,353/QALY gained. Reducing the cost of the medication by 16% allowed the cost to reach the typical benchmark of ${\$}$100,000/QALY gained. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis favored transplantation without offering teduglutide in 68% of iterations at a ${\$}$100,000/QALY threshold. Never using teduglutide created an opportunity cost of over ${\$}$100,000 per patient.

CONCLUSIONS

At its current price, teduglutide does not provide a cost-effective addition to transplantation in the treatment of pediatric short bowel syndrome. Further work should look to identify cost-reducing strategies, including alternative dosing regimens.

Prolonged Parenteral Nutrition Is One of the Most Significant Risk Factors for Nosocomial Infections in Adult Patients With Intestinal Failure

BACKGROUND

Intestinal failure (IF) and its management are associated with an increased likelihood of infectious complications. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and potential risk factors for nosocomial infections (NIs) in hospitalized adult patients with IF.

METHODS

In total, 259 eligible patients with IF admitted to a single clinical nutrition center in a tertiary referral hospital from January 1, 2012, to January 1, 2019, were retrospectively identified. NIs were defined according to the 2008 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify independent risk factors for NIs.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study population was 47.0 ± 17.7 years, and 158 (61.0%) were men. The mean body mass index was 16.2 ± 2.9 kg/m² , and 219 (84.6%) were diagnosed with malnutrition. The prevalence of NIs was 25.5% (113 NIs in 66 patients). The most common NIs were pneumonia (14.3%), bacteremia of unknown origin (13.5%), catheter-related bloodstream infection (5.0%), lower respiratory tract infection (5.0%), surgical site infection (3.9%), and urinary tract infection (1.9%). Multivariate analysis revealed that decreased serum albumin level (odds ratio [OR], 0.884; 95% CI, 0.883-0.978, P < .05), presence of gallbladder stones or cholestasis (OR, 3.144; 95% CI, 1.044-9.464; P < .05), and prolonged parenteral nutrition (PN) use (OR, 1.072; 95% CI, 1.039-1.105; P < .001) were independent predictors for NIs.

CONCLUSIONS

NIs remain prevalent in hospitalized adult patients with IF. Prolonged PN use was one of the most significant predictors for NIs.

Antibiotic Susceptibility and Therapy in Central Line Infections in Pediatric Home Parenteral Nutrition Patients

BACKGROUND

Patients receiving home parenteral nutrition (HPN) are at high-risk for central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI). There are no published management guidelines, however, for the antibiotic treatment of suspected CLABSI in this population. Historical microbiology data may help inform empiric antimicrobial regimens in this population.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to describe antimicrobial resistance patterns and determine the most appropriate empiric antibiotic therapy in HPN-dependent children experiencing a community-acquired CLABSI.

METHODS

Single-center retrospective cohort study evaluating potential coverage of empiric antibiotic regimens in children on HPN who developed a community-acquired CLABSI.

RESULTS

From October 1, 2011 to September 30, 2017, there were 309 CLABSI episodes among 90 HPN-dependent children with median age 3.8 years old.Fifty-nine percent of patients carried the diagnosis of surgical short bowel syndrome. Organisms isolated during these infections included 60% Gram-positive bacteria, 34% Gram-negative bacteria, and 6% fungi. Among all staphylococcal isolates, 51% were methicillin sensitive. Among enteric Gram-negative organisms, sensitivities were piperacillin-tazobactam 71%, cefepime 97%, and meropenem 99%. Organisms were sensitive to current institutional standard therapy with vancomycin and piperacillin-tazobactam in 69% of cases compared with vancomycin and cefepime or vancomycin an meropenem in 85% and 96% of cases (both P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Empiric antimicrobial therapy for suspected CLABSI in HPN-dependent children should include therapy for methicillin-resistant staphylococci as well as enteric Gram-negative organisms. Future studies are needed to evaluate clinical outcomes based upon evidence-based antimicrobial regimens.

Risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infections in children with tunneled central venous catheters

BACKGROUND

Central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) are among the most common complications of central venous catheters (CVCs). The aim of this study was to examine the epidemiology of CLABSIs in tunneled CVCs and analyze their risk factors in a general pediatric population.

METHODS

Children with a tunneled CVC inserted at the University Children's Hospital Zürich between January 2009 and December 2015 were eligible for the study. The influence of CVC dwell time on the risk of CLABSI was examined using life tables. Hazard ratios (HRs) for CLABSIs were analyzed using Cox regression for age and diagnosis with cluster robust standard errors.

RESULTS

Fifty-five CLABSIs were observed in 193 patients with 284 tunneled CVCs. Overall, CVCs in children with gastrointestinal disorders and in children 2 to 5 years of age showed the highest incidence rates of 6.06 and 5.85 CLABSIs per 1,000 catheter days, respectively, during the first 90 days after placement. Gastrointestinal disease (HR, 3.89; 95% CI, 2.19-6.90; P < .001) and age 2 to 5 years (HR, 2.48; 95% CI, 1.45-4.22; P = .001) were identified as independent risk factors for CLABSI. In children without gastrointestinal disease, tunneled CVCs showed an increasing risk of CLABSI after a dwell time of 90 days.

CONCLUSIONS

The need for tunneled CVCs requires the evaluation of targeted CLABSI prevention measures, especially in young children with underlying gastrointestinal disease.

Short Bowel Syndrome

Purpose of Review

Short gut syndrome is life-altering and life-threatening disease resulting most often from massive small bowel resection. Recent advances in understanding of the perturbed physiology in these patients have translated into improved care and outcomes. This paper seeks to review the advances of care in SBS patients.

Recent Findings

Anatomic considerations still predominate the early care of SBS patients, including aggressive preservation of bowel and documentation of remnant bowel length and quality. Intestinal adaptation is the process by which remnant bowel changes to fit the physiologic needs of the patient. Grossly, the bowel dilates and elongates to increase intestinal weight and protein content. Architectural changes are noted, such as villus lengthening and deepening of crypts. In addition, gene expression changes occur that function to maximize nutrient uptake and fluid preservation. Management is aimed at understanding these physiologic changes and augmenting them whenever possible in an effort to gain enteral autonomy. Complication mitigation is key, including avoidance of catheter complications, bloodstream infections, cholestasis, and nutrient deficiencies.

Summary

Multidisciplinary teams working together towards intestinal rehabilitation have shown improved outcomes. Today's practioner needs a current understanding of the ever-evolving care of these patients in order to promote enteral autonomy, recognize complications, and counsel patients and families appropriately.

Prevalence of Bloodstream Infections in Children With Short-Bowel Syndrome With a Central Line Presenting to Emergency Department With Fever

BACKGROUND

Children with short-bowel syndrome (SBS) have significant morbidity and mortality from bloodstream infections (BSIs). We studied the prevalence of BSI in children with SBS and identified possible predictors of BSI.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included patients with SBS who presented to Holtz Children's Hospital from April 1, 2009, to June 30, 2014, with fever or reported fever. Data including vital signs, white blood cell (WBC) count, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, and blood and urine cultures were reviewed. We calculated the prevalence of BSI and its confidence level. We also assessed the odds of BSI with increases in WBC and CRP values.

RESULTS

A total of 246 encounters were evaluated. The adjusted calculated prevalence rate for BSI in children with SBS and fever was 55% (95% CI, 42.3%-65.4%). There were 114 gram-negative infections (72.6%), 46 gram-positive infections (29.3%), and 17 fungal infections (10.8%). Using the regression model, each additional 10 units above 20 mg/L CRP increased the odds of BSI by 26%. There was no association between WBC count and the presence of BSI.

CONCLUSION

Children with fever and SBS are at high risk for BSI with gram-positive and gram-negative organisms as well as fungus. WBC count at presentation is a poor predictor of BSI. Though elevated CRP increased the odds of BSI, its low negative predictive value made it a poor predictor of BSI in these patients. Children with SBS and fever should be treated urgently with broad-spectrum antibiotics.

Evidence-Based Strategies and Recommendations for Preservation of Central Venous Access in Children

Children with chronic illness often require prolonged or repeated venous access. They remain at high risk for venous catheter-related complications (high-risk patients), which largely derive from elective decisions during catheter insertion and continuing care. These complications result in progressive loss of the venous capital (patent and compliant venous pathways) necessary for delivery of life-preserving therapies. A nonstandardized, episodic, isolated approach to venous care in these high-need, high-cost patients is too often the norm, imposing a disproportionate burden on affected persons and escalating costs. This state-of-the-art review identifies known failure points in the current systems of venous care, details the elements of an individualized plan of care, and emphasizes a patient-centered, multidisciplinary, collaborative, and evidence-based approach to care in these vulnerable populations. These guidelines are intended to enable every practitioner in every practice to deliver better care and better outcomes to these patients through awareness of critical issues, anticipatory attention to meaningful components of care, and appropriate consultation or referral when necessary.