Photodynamic Therapy treatment of onychomycosis with Aluminium-Phthalocyanine Chloride nanoemulsions: A proof of concept clinical trial

Hurdles in translating science from lab to market in delivery systems for Cosmetics: An industrial perspective

In recent decades, a sweeping technological wave has reshaped the global economic landscape. Fueled by the unceasing forces of digital innovation and venture capital investment, this transformative machine has left a significant mark across numerous economic sectors. More recently, the emergence of 'deep tech' start-ups, focusing on areas such as artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and biotechnology, has infused a fresh wave of innovation into various sectors, including the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. This review explores the significance of innovation within the cosmetics sector, with a particular emphasis on delivery systems. It assesses the crucial process of bridging the gap between research and the market, particularly in the translation of nanotechnology into tangible real-world applications. With the rise of nanotechnology-based beauty ingredients, we can anticipate groundbreaking advancements that promise to surpass consumer expectations, ushering in a new era of unparalleled innovation in beauty products.

Novel Discoveries and Clinical Advancements for Treating Onychomycosis: A Mechanistic Insight

Onychomycosis continues to be the most challenging disease condition for pharmaceutical scientists to develop an effective drug delivery system. Treatment challenges lie in incomplete cure and high relapse rate. Present compilation provides cumulative information on pathophysiology, diagnostic techniques, and conventional treatment strategies to manage onychomycosis. Novel technologies developed for successful delivery of antifungal molecules are also discussed in brief. Multidirectional information offered by this article also unlocks the panoramic view of leading patented technologies and clinical trials. The obtained clinical landscape recommends the use of advanced technology driven approaches, as a promising way-out for treatment of onychomycosis. Collectively, present review warrants the application of novel technologies for the successful management of onychomycosis. This review will assist readers to envision a better understanding about the technologies available for combating onychomycosis. We also trust that these contributions address and certainly will encourage the design and development of nanocarriers-based delivery vehicles for effective management of onychomycosis.

A Review of the Dermatologic Clinical Applications of Topical Photodynamic Therapy

Topical photodynamic therapy is a widely approved therapy for actinic keratoses and low-risk nonmelanoma skin cancers with a rapidly growing range of emerging indications for other cutaneous diseases. This review summarizes the best-available evidence to provide a clinical update for dermatologists on the approved and emerging indications of photodynamic therapy. The body of evidence suggests that photodynamic therapy is superior or noninferior to other available treatment modalities for actinic keratoses, low-risk basal cell carcinomas, Bowen's disease, skin field cancerization, chemoprevention of keratinocyte carcinomas in organ transplant recipients, photoaging, acne vulgaris, and cutaneous infections including verrucae, onychomycosis, and cutaneous leishmaniasis. There is emerging evidence that photodynamic therapy plays a role in the management of actinic cheilitis, early-stage mycosis fungoides, extramammary Paget disease, lichen sclerosis, and folliculitis decalvans but there are no comparative studies with other active treatment modalities. Common barriers to topical photodynamic therapy include procedural pain, costs, and the time required for treatment delivery. There is significant heterogeneity in the photodynamic therapy protocols reported in the literature, including different photosensitizers, light sources, number of treatments, time between treatments, and use of procedural analgesia. Topical photodynamic therapy should be considered in the management of a spectrum of inflammatory, neoplastic, and infectious dermatoses. However, more comparative research is required to determine its role in the treatment algorithm for these dermatologic conditions and more methodological research is required to optimize photodynamic therapy protocols to improve the tolerability of the procedure for patients.

Preparation and characterization of a curcumin nanoemulsion gel for the effective treatment of mycoses

Fungal infections of skin including mycoses are one of the most common infections in skin or skins. Mycosis is caused by dermatophytes, non-dermatophyte moulds and yeasts. Various studies show different drugs to treat mycoses, yet there is need to treat it with applied drugs delivery. This study was designed to prepare a bio curcumin (CMN) nanoemulsion (CMN-NEs) for transdermal administration to treat mycoses. The self-nanoemulsification approach was used to prepare a nanoemulsion (NE), utilizing an oil phase consisting of Cremophor EL 100 (Cre EL), glyceryl monooleate (GMO), and polyethylene glycol 5000 (PEG 5000). Particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometric analysis, and morphological analyses were performed to evaluate the nanoemulsion (NE). The in vitro permeation of CMN was investigated using a modified vertical diffusion cell with an activated dialysis membrane bag. Among all the formulations, a stable, spontaneously produced nanoemulsion was determined with 250 mg of CMN loaded with 10 g of the oil phase. The average droplet size, ZP, and PDI of CMN-NEs were 90.0 ± 2.1 nm, - 7.4 ± 0.4, and 0.171 ± 0.03 mV, respectively. The release kinetics of CMN differed from zero order with a Higuchi release profile as a result of nanoemulsification, which also significantly increased the flux of CMN permeating from the hydrophilic matrix gel. Overall, the prepared nanoemulsion system not only increased the permeability of CMN but also protected it against chemical deterioration. Both CMN-ME (24.0 ± 0.31 mm) and CMN-NE gel (29.6 ± 0.25 mm) had zones of inhibition against Candida albicans that were significantly larger than those of marketed Itrostred gel (21.5 ± 0.34 mm). The prepared CMN-NE improved the bioavailability, better skin penetration, and the CMN-NE gel enhanced the release of CMN from the gel matrix on mycotic patients.

Contemporary Techniques and Potential Transungual Drug Delivery Nanosystems for The Treatment of Onychomycosis

The humanoid nail is considered an exceptional protective barrier that is formed mainly from keratin. Onychomycosis is the cause of 50% of nail infections that is generally caused by dermatophytes. Firstly, the infection was regarded as a cosmetic problem but because of the tenacious nature of onychomycosis and its relapses, these infections have attracted medical attention. The first line of therapy was the oral antifungal agents which were proven to be effective; nevertheless, they exhibited hepato-toxic side effects, alongside drug interactions. Following, the opportunity was shifted to the topical remedies, as onychomycosis is rather superficial, yet this route is hindered by the keratinized layers in the nail plate. A potential alternative to overcome the obstacle was applying different mechanical, physical, and chemical methods to boost the penetration of drugs through the nail plate. Unfortunately, these methods might be expensive, require an expert to be completed, or even be followed by pain or more serious side effects. Furthermore, topical formulations such as nail lacquers and patches do not provide enough sustaining effects. Recently, newer therapies such as nanovesicles, nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions have emerged for the treatment of onychomycosis that provided effective treatment with possibly no side effects. This review states the treatment strategies such as mechanical, physical, and chemical methods, and highlights various innovative dosage forms and nanosystems developed in the last 10 years with a focus on advanced findings regarding formulation systems. Furthermore, it demonstrates the natural bioactives and their formulation as nanosystems, and the most relevant clinical outcomes.

Nucleotides Entrapped in Liposome Nanovesicles as Tools for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Use in Biomedical Applications

The use of nucleotides for biomedical applications is an old desire in the scientific community. As we will present here, there are references published over the past 40 years with this intended use. The main problem is that, as unstable molecules, nucleotides require some additional protection to extend their shelf life in the biological environment. Among the different nucleotide carriers, the nano-sized liposomes proved to be an effective strategic tool to overcome all these drawbacks related to the nucleotide high instability. Moreover, due to their low immunogenicity and easy preparation, the liposomes were selected as the main strategy for delivery of the mRNA developed for COVID-19 immunization. For sure this is the most important and relevant example of nucleotide application for human biomedical conditions. In addition, the use of mRNA vaccines for COVID-19 has increased interest in the application of this type of technology to other health conditions. For this review article, we will present some of these examples, especially focused on the use of liposomes to protect and deliver nucleotides for cancer therapy, immunostimulatory activities, enzymatic diagnostic applications, some examples for veterinarian use, and the treatment of neglected tropical disease.

Promising onychomycosis treatment with hypericin-mediated photodynamic therapy: case reports

BACKGROUND

Onychomycosis (OM) is a common nail plate disorder caused by dermatophyte molds, yeasts, and non-dermatophyte molds, which use keratin in the nail plate as an energy source. OM is characterized by dyschromia, increased nail thickness, subungual hyperkeratosis, and onychodystrophy, and is typically treated with conventional antifungals despite frequent reports of toxicity, fungal resistance, and OM recurrence. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) with hypericin (Hyp) as a photosensitizer (PS) stands out as a promising therapeutic modality. When excited by a specific wavelength of light and in the presence of oxygen, to lead to photochemical and photobiological reactions on the selected targets.

METHODS

OM diagnosis was made in three suspected cases, and the causative agents were identified by classical and molecular methods, and confirmed by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). Susceptibility of planktonic cells of the clinical isolates to conventional antifungals and PDT-Hyp was evaluated, and photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) of Hyp permeation in nail fragments ex vivo was analyzed. Furthermore, the patients opted to undergo PDT-Hyp treatment and were subsequently followed up. The protocol was approved by the human ethics committee (CAAE, number 14107419.4.0000.0104).

RESULTS

The etiological agents of OM in patients ID 01 and ID 02 belonged to the Fusarium solani species complex, being identified as Fusarium keratoplasticum (CMRP 5514) and Fusarium solani (CMRP 5515), respectively. For patient ID 03, the OM agent was identified as Trichophyton rubrum (CMRP 5516). PDT-Hyp demonstrated a fungicidal effect in vitro, with reductions of ≥3 log₁₀ (p<0.0051 and p<0.0001), and the PAS analyses indicated that Hyp could completely permeate through both healthy and OM-affected nails. After four sessions of PDT-Hyp, mycological cure was observed in all three cases, and after seventh months, clinical cure was confirmed. PDT-Hyp showed satisfactory results in terms of efficacy and safety, and thus can be considered a promising therapy for the clinical treatment of OM.

Treatment of Superficial Mycoses Using Photodynamic Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Objective: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in treating superficial fungal infections, and provide reference for clinical application. Methods: In accordance with Population, Intervention, Comparator, and Outcome (PICO), the research question and keywords were formulated. Records published in English by PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science as of November 14, 2022 were retrieved, including the keywords "mycoses," "tinea," "photochemotherapy," etc. Besides, meta-analysis performed by STATA and PROSPERO registration code was CRD42022363448. Results: One thousand four hundred eighty-four records were identified and 18 articles involving 343 patients with superficial fungal infections were enrolled. The overall mycological cure rate of PDT is 55% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.46-0.65]. The fungal cure rate using methylene blue (MB) as photosensitizer (PS) is 67% (95% CI: 0.55-0.79); using 5-aminolevulinic acid is 34% (95% CI: 0.21-0.47); and using methyl aminolevulinate is 56% (95% CI: 0.33-0.78). The fungal cure rate of moderate-to-severe onychomycosis according to Onychomycosis Severity Index is 60% (95% CI: 0.47-0.73) and that of moderate onychomycosis is 66% (95% CI: 0.56-0.76). It was observed that the treatment parameters did not follow the same standard across studies. The majority of the included studies were moderate to low biased. Conclusions: PDT, particularly using MB as PS, has a certain mycological cure rate and safety at treating superficial mycoses. Due to the insufficient number of studies on PDT in the treatment of superficial fungal infections and the small sample size of some studies, more studies with standardized PDT parameters, large sample size, and long follow-up periods are needed to prove that PDT has the potential to become an alternative to traditional antifungal therapy or to find a better combination between them.

Influence of the Coordinated Ligand on the Optical and Electrical Properties in Titanium Phthalocyanine-Based Active Films for Photovoltaics

Tetravalent titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) and titanium phthalocyanine dichloride (TiCl₂Pc) films were deposited via the high-vacuum thermal evaporation technique and subsequently structurally and morphologically characterized, to be later evaluated in terms of their optoelectronic behavior. The IR and UV-vis spectroscopy of the films displayed α- and β-phase signals in TiOPc and TiCl₂Pc. Additionally, the UV-vis spectra displayed the B and Q bands in the near-UV region of 270-390 nm and in the visible region between 600 and 880 nm, respectively. The films presented the onset gap (~1.30 eV) and the optical gap (~2.85 eV). Photoluminescence emission bands at 400-600 nm and 800-950 nm are present for the films. One-layer ITO/TiCl₂Pc or TiOPc/Ag and two-layer ITO/PEDOT:PSS/TiCl₂Pc or TiOPc/Ag planar heterojunction devices with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) deposited by the spin-coating technique were constructed. In these devices, an electrical activation energy between 0.18 and 0.21 eV and a refractive index between 1.14 and 1.44 were obtained. The devices presented a change in the J-V curves for the illuminated and darkness conditions, as much as 1.5 × 10² A/cm², related to the device architecture and phthalocyanine ligand. The latter indicates that the films should be used for optoelectronic applications.

Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment of Fungal Infections

Cutaneous fungal infections are common in humans and are associated with significant physical and psychological distress to patients. Although conventional topical and/or oral anti-fungal medications are commonly recommended treatments, drug resistance has emerged as a significant concern in this patient population, and safer, more efficacious, and cost-effective alternatives are warranted. Recent studies have reported effectiveness of photodynamic therapy (PDT) against fungal infections without severe adverse effects. In this review, we briefly discuss the mechanisms underlying PDT, current progress, adverse effects, and limitations of this treatment in the management of superficial and deep fungal infections.

Photodynamic therapy mediated by nanoparticles Aluminum Chloro Phthalocyanine in oral squamous carcinoma cells

The aim of this study is to investigate the antineoplastic potential of photodynamic therapy (PDT) mediated by an aluminum-phthalocyanine chloride nanoemulsion (AlPc-NE), against an oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell line in vitro. Both OSCC (SCC9) and A431 cell lines were studied in vitro. Four study groups were used: Group 1 (phosphate-buffered saline [PBS]), Group 2 (PBS + 28.3 J/cm² irradiation), Group 3 (AlPc-NE alone), and Group 4 (AlPc-NE + 28.3 J/cm² irradiation). To test the effect of PDT with AlPc-NE, cell viability, migration, and cell death assays were performed. Moreover, the expressions of Ki-67 and TP53 were evaluated using immunoassays. The results showed that PDT mediated by all AlPc-NE concentrations evaluated (i.e., 0.7, 0.35, and 0.17 nM AlPc) significantly reduced the viability of SCC9 cells. Migration and cell death assays also revealed that PDT with AlPc-NE significantly reduced the rate of migration and increased cell death compared to the control groups. In addition, it was found that PDT with AlPc-NE reduced Ki-67 and mutated TP53 immunoexpression. PDT with AlPc-NE is effective in reducing the viability and migration of SCC9. Moreover, PDT with AlPc-NE nanoemulsions reduces the cell proliferation and expression of mutant TP53.

Recent exploration of nanoemulsions for drugs and cosmeceuticals delivery

BACKGROUND

Nanoemulsions (NEs) have been explored as nanocarriers for the delivery of many drugs and cosmeceuticals. The extraordinary expansion of using NEs is due to their capability to conquer the main challenges of conventional delivery systems such as short residence time with low patient acceptance, poor stability, low aqueous solubility, permeability, and hence bioavailability.

METHODS

This review recapitulated the most recent pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical applications of NEs as effective delivery nanocarriers. The outputs of our research studies and the literature review on the latest NEs applications were assessed to highlight the NEs components, preparations, applications, and the improved quality and elegance of the used product.

RESULTS

NEs are stable submicronic translucent dispersions with narrow droplet size distribution. They exhibited excellent ability to efficiently encapsulate therapeutics of diverse nature of drugs and cosmeceuticals. NE formulations showed superiority over conventional delivery approaches with overabundances of advantages through different routes of administration. This novel technology exhibited better aesthetic appeal, higher bioavailability, and a longer duration compared to the conventional delivery systems.

CONCLUSION

This novel technology holds promise for different therapeutics fields. However, the success of NEs use advocated the development of robust formulations, proper choice of equipment, ample process characterization, and assurance of their efficacy, stability, safety and cosmetic appeal.

Phototherapy and optical waveguides for the treatment of infection

With rapid emergence of multi-drug resistant microbes, it is imperative to seek alternative means for infection control. Optical waveguides are an auspicious delivery method for precise administration of phototherapy. Studies have shown that phototherapy is promising in fighting against a myriad of infectious pathogens (i.e. viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa) including biofilm-forming species and drug-resistant strains while evading treatment resistance. When administered via optical waveguides, phototherapy can treat both superficial and deep-tissue infections while minimizing off-site effects that afflict conventional phototherapy and pharmacotherapy. Despite great therapeutic potential, exact mechanisms, materials, and fabrication designs to optimize this promising treatment option are underexplored. This review outlines principles and applications of phototherapy and optical waveguides for infection control. Research advances, challenges, and outlook regarding this delivery system are rigorously discussed in a hope to inspire future developments of optical waveguide-mediated phototherapy for the management of infection and beyond.

Photosensitizers Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation against Fungi

Superficial and systemic fungal infections are essential problems for the modern health care system. One of the challenges is the growing resistance of fungi to classic antifungals and the constantly increasing cost of therapy. These factors force the scientific world to intensify the search for alternative and more effective methods of treatment. This paper presents an overview of new fungal inactivation methods using Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (PACT). The results of research on compounds from the groups of phenothiazines, xanthanes, porphyrins, chlorins, porphyrazines, and phthalocyanines are presented. An intensive search for a photosensitizer with excellent properties is currently underway. The formulation based on the existing ones is also developed by combining them with nanoparticles and common antifungal therapy. Numerous studies indicate that fungi do not form any specific defense mechanism against PACT, which deems it a promising therapeutic alternative.

Race reporting and representation in onychomycosis clinical trials: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Onychomycosis is the most common nail disease seen in clinical practice. Inclusion of diverse groups in onychomycosis clinical trials subjects is necessary to generalise efficacy data.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to systematically review race and ethnicity reporting and representation, as well as, treatment outcomes in onychomycosis clinical trials.

METHODS

A PubMed search for onychomycosis clinical trials was performed in August 2020. Primary clinical trial data were included and post hoc analyses were excluded. Categorical variables were compared using chi-squared and Fisher's exact tests. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. Photos in articles were categorised by Fitzpatrick skin type.

RESULTS

Only 32/182 (17.5%) trials reported on race and/or ethnicity and only one trial compared treatment efficacy in different subgroups. Darker skin colours were infrequently depicted in articles. Topical treatment, location with ≥1 US-based site, industry funding type and publication date after 2000 were significantly associated with reporting of racial/ethnic data (p < .05 for all comparisons).

LIMITATIONS

Demographics on excluded subjects and methods of recruitment were not available. Assigning Fitzpatrick skin type is inherently subjective.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights a need for consistent reporting of races and ethnicities of onychomycosis clinical trial participants with subgroup analyses of treatment efficacies.

A systematic review of photodynamic therapy as an antiviral treatment: Potential guidance for dealing with SARS-CoV-2

BACKGROUND

SARS-CoV-2, which causes the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), presents high rates of morbidity and mortality around the world. The search to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 is ongoing and urgent. This systematic review seeks to assess whether photodynamic therapy (PDT) could be effective in SARS-CoV-2 inactivation.

METHODS

The focus question was: Can photodynamic therapy be used as potential guidance for dealing with SARS-CoV-2?". A literature search, according to PRISMA statements, was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, LILACS, and Google Scholar. Studies published from January 2004 to June 2020 were analyzed. In vitro and in vivo studies were included that evaluated the effect of PDT mediated by several photosensitizers on RNA and DNA enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.

RESULTS

From 27 selected manuscripts, 26 publications used in vitro studies, 24 were exclusively in vitro, and two had in vitro/in vivo parts. Only one analyzed publication was exclusively in vivo. Meta-analysis studies were unfeasible due to heterogeneity of the data. The risk of bias was analyzed in all studies.

CONCLUSION

The in vitro and in vivo studies selected in this systematic review indicated that PDT is capable of photoinactivating enveloped and non-enveloped DNA and RNA viruses, suggesting that PDT can potentially photoinactivate SARS-CoV-2.

Onychomycosis: An Updated Review

Background: Onychomycosis is a common fungal infection of the nail.

Objective: The study aimed to provide an update on the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of onychomycosis.

Methods: A PubMed search was completed in Clinical Queries using the key term “onychomycosis”. The search was conducted in May 2019. The search strategy included meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, observational studies, and reviews published within the past 20 years. The search was restricted to English literature. Patents were searched using the key term “onychomycosis” in www.freepatentsonline.com.

Results: Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of the nail unit. Approximately 90% of toenail and 75% of fingernail onychomycosis are caused by dermatophytes, notably Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Trichophyton rubrum. Clinical manifestations include discoloration of the nail, subungual hyperkeratosis, onycholysis, and onychauxis. The diagnosis can be confirmed by direct microscopic examination with a potassium hydroxide wet-mount preparation, histopathologic examination of the trimmed affected nail plate with a periodic-acid-Schiff stain, fungal culture, or polymerase chain reaction assays. Laboratory confirmation of onychomycosis before beginning a treatment regimen should be considered. Currently, oral terbinafine is the treatment of choice, followed by oral itraconazole. In general, topical monotherapy can be considered for mild to moderate onychomycosis and is a therapeutic option when oral antifungal agents are contraindicated or cannot be tolerated. Recent patents related to the management of onychomycosis are also discussed.

Conclusion: Oral antifungal therapies are effective, but significant adverse effects limit their use.Although topical antifungal therapies have minimal adverse events, they are less effective than oral antifungal therapies, due to poor nail penetration. Therefore, there is a need for exploring more effective and/or alternative treatment modalities for the treatment of onychomycosis which are safer and more effective.

Design of Photosensitizing Agents for Targeted Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic inactivation of microorganisms has gained substantial attention due to its unique mode of action, in which pathogens are unable to generate resistance, and due to the fact that it can be applied in a minimally invasive manner. In photodynamic therapy (PDT), a non-toxic photosensitizer (PS) is activated by a specific wavelength of light and generates highly cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide (O2-, type-I mechanism) or singlet oxygen (1O2*, type-II mechanism). Although it offers many advantages over conventional treatment methods, ROS-mediated microbial killing is often faced with the issues of accessibility, poor selectivity and off-target damage. Thus, several strategies have been employed to develop target-specific antimicrobial PDT (aPDT). This includes conjugation of known PS building-blocks to either non-specific cationic moieties or target-specific antibiotics and antimicrobial peptides, or combining them with targeting nanomaterials. In this review, we summarise these general strategies and related challenges, and highlight recent developments in targeted aPDT.

Photodynamic therapy with nanoparticles to combat microbial infection and resistance

Infections caused by drug-resistant pathogens are rapidly increasing in incidence and pose an urgent global health concern. New treatments are needed to address this critical situation while preventing further resistance acquired by the pathogens. One promising approach is antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT), a technique that selectively damages pathogenic cells through reactive oxygen species (ROS) that have been deliberately produced by light-activated chemical reactions via a photosensitiser. There are currently some limitations to its wider deployment, including aggregation, hydrophobicity, and sub-optimal penetration capabilities of the photosensitiser, all of which decrease the production of ROS and lead to reduced therapeutic performance. In combination with nanoparticles, however, these challenges may be overcome. Their small size, functionalisable structure, and large contact surface allow a high degree of internalization by cellular membranes and tissue barriers. In this review, we first summarise the mechanism of PDT action and the interaction between nanoparticles and the cell membrane. We then introduce the categorisation of nanoparticles in PDT, acting as nanocarriers, photosensitising molecules, and transducers, in which we highlight their use against a range of bacterial and fungal pathogens. We also compare the antimicrobial efficiency of nanoparticles to unbound photosensitisers and examine the relevant safety considerations. Finally, we discuss the use of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems in clinical applications of antimicrobial PDT.

Inactivation of Dermatophytes Causing Onychomycosis and Its Therapy Using Non-Thermal Plasma

Onychomycosis is one of the most common nail disorders. Its current treatment is not satisfactorily effective and often causes adverse side effects. This study aims to determine the optimal conditions for non-thermal plasma (NTP) inactivation of the most common dermatophytes in vitro and to apply it in patient`s therapy. The in vitro exposure to NTP produced by negative DC corona discharge caused full inactivation of Trichophyton spp. if applied during the early growth phases. This effect decreased to negligible inactivation with the exposure applied six days after inoculation. In a group of 40 patients with onychomycosis, NTP therapy was combined with nail plate abrasion and refreshment (NPAR) or treatment with antimycotics. The cohort included 17 patients treated with NPAR combined with NTP, 11 patients treated with antimycotics and NTP, and 12 patients treated with NPAR alone. The combination of NPAR and NTP resulted in clinical cure in more than 70% of patients. The synergistic effect of NPAR and NTP caused 85.7% improvement of mycological cure confirmed by negative microscopy and culture of the affected nail plate. We conclude that NTP can significantly improve the treatment of onychomycosis.

Methylene blue vs methyl aminolevulinate photodynamic therapy in the treatment of mild-to-moderate toenail onychomycosis: Short- and medium-term effects

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as an interesting alternative option for onychomycosis treatment. The impact of a specific photosensitizer (PS) on the final result is an important factor to consider. We conducted a short- and medium-term controlled trial to compare the effectiveness of PDT in the treatment of mild-to-moderate onychomycosis when it is mediated by two different PSs. Twenty patients were randomized to receive nine sessions of PDT distributed over 16 weeks mediated either by methylene blue (MB/PDT group) or methyl aminolevulinate (MAL/PDT group). Onychomycosis severity index (OSI) and nail involvement were checked along the study. Complete cure, treatment success, and clinical improvement were tabulated at 16 and 40-week follow-ups. OSI scores decreased significantly along the study, from 12.1 ± 5.4 to 3.6 ± 3.2 (MB/PDT group) and from 14.8 ± 6.0 to 5.4 ± 4.4 (MAL/PDT group). At 16-week follow-up, only 20% of the patients in the MB/PDT group reached complete cure and none in the group of MAL/PDT. At 40-week follow-up, complete cure rates were 70% and 40% in the MB/PDT group and MAL/PDT group respectively. Both modalities showed good outcomes in treatment of moderate toenail onychomycosis. MB/PDT showed a faster action but with relapse rates slightly higher than MAL/PDT.

Methylene blue vs methyl aminolevulinate photodynamic therapy in combination with oral terbinafine in the treatment of severe dermatophytic toenail onychomycosis: Short- and long-term effects

BACKGROUND

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) kills target microorganisms via reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. PDT seems to be a good alternative treatment option for onychomycosis.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the efficacy of combined therapies based on oral terbinafine (TN) plus adjunctive PDT mediated by methylene blue (MB) (TN + MB/PDT) or methyl aminolevulinate (MAL) (TN + MAL/PDT) in the treatment of onychomycosis.

METHODS

Twenty patients affected by severe dermatophyte onychomycosis in the nails of the big toe (>60% disease involvement of target nail) received oral TN for 12 weeks and concomitantly were randomly allocated to receive nine sessions, separated by 2-week intervals, of urea (40%) plus a PDT protocol mediated by MB (TN + MB/PDT: group I) or mediated by MAL (TN + MAL/PDT: group II). Clinical and mycological efficacy was evaluated at 16-, 40- and 52-week follow-up.

RESULTS

Both protocols showed a significant decrease in Onychomycosis Severity Index (OSI) scores (P < .05), from 24.2 ± 4.6 to 0.7 ± 0.6 (group I)) and from 18.5 ± 10.1 to 2.1 ± 2.0 (group II). No side effects or complications were reported in any of the combinations used. Mycological cure rates were significantly higher during the last third of the evaluated period of time, reaching 100% and 90% in group I and group II, respectively, at the 52-week follow-up. In both modalities, complete cure was achieved in 70% of the patients at the 52-week follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

TN + MB/PDT and TN + MAL/PDT show similar outcomes in the treatment of toenails with severe onychomycosis. PDT is an effective method to accelerate the TN-mediated healing process.

A Critical Reappraisal of Off-Label Use of Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment of Non-Neoplastic Skin Conditions

BACKGROUND

In the past 30 years, topical photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been investigated for the treatment of a broad spectrum of cosmetic, inflammatory, and infectious skin conditions with variable, and often contrasting, results. However, the non-expert clinician may be in difficulty evaluating these results because different sensitizers, concentrations, formulations, light sources, and irradiation protocols have been used. In addition, many of these studies have poor quality design being case reports and uncontrolled studies of few cases.

SUMMARY

With the aim to clarify the potential usefulness of PDT for the treatment of infectious and inflammatory skin diseases as well as selected cosmetic indications, we searched for randomized controlled clinical trials, non-randomized comparative studies, retrospective studies, and case series studies with a number of at least 10 patients, published since 1990. Later, we reappraised the results in order to give a simple critical overview. Key Messages: Evidence from the literature seems to strongly support the use of ALA- and MAL-PDT for the treatment of common skin diseases such as acne, warts, condylomata, and Leishmania skin infection and for photorejuvenation, i.e., the correction of selected cosmetic changes of aging and photoaging. For other disorders, the level of evidence and strength of recommendation are lower, and controlled randomized studies with prolonged follow-ups are necessary in order to assess the clinical usefulness and other potential advantages over current treatment options.

Topical and device-based treatments for fungal infections of the toenails

BACKGROUND

Onychomycosis refers to fungal infections of the nail apparatus that may cause pain, discomfort, and disfigurement. This is an update of a Cochrane Review published in 2007; a substantial amount of new research warrants a review exclusively on toenails.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the clinical and mycological effects of topical drugs and device-based therapies for toenail onychomycosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases up to May 2019: the Cochrane Skin Group Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase and LILACS. We also searched five trials registers, and checked the reference lists of included and excluded studies for further references to relevant randomised controlled trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials of topical and device-based therapies for onychomycosis in participants with toenail onychomycosis, confirmed by positive cultures, direct microscopy, or histological nail examination. Eligible comparators were placebo, vehicle, no treatment, or an active topical or device-based treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Primary outcomes were complete cure rate (normal-looking nail plus fungus elimination, determined with laboratory methods) and number of participants reporting treatment-related adverse events.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 56 studies (12,501 participants, average age: 27 to 68 years), with mainly mild-to-moderate onychomycosis without matrix involvement (where reported). Participants had more than one toenail affected. Most studies lasted 48 to 52 weeks; 23% reported disease duration (variable). Thirty-five studies specifically examined dermatophyte-caused onychomycosis. Forty-three studies were carried out in outpatient settings. Most studies assessed topical treatments, 9% devices, and 11% both. We rated three studies at low risk of bias across all domains. The most common high-risk domain was performance bias. We present results for key comparisons, where treatment duration was 36 or 48 weeks, and clinical outcomes were measured at 40 to 52 weeks. Based on two studies (460 participants), compared with vehicle, ciclopirox 8% lacquer may be more effective in achieving complete cure (risk ratio (RR) 9.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.72 to 50.14; low-quality evidence) and is probably more effective in achieving mycological cure (RR 3.15, 95% CI 1.93 to 5.12; moderate-quality evidence). Ciclopirox lacquer may lead to increased adverse events, commonly application reactions, rashes, and nail alteration (e.g. colour, shape). However, the 95% CI indicates that ciclopirox lacquer may actually make little or no difference (RR 1.61, 95% CI 0.89 to 2.92; low-quality evidence). Efinaconazole 10% solution is more effective than vehicle in achieving complete cure (RR 3.54, 95% CI 2.24 to 5.60; 3 studies, 1716 participants) and clinical cure (RR 3.07, 95% CI 2.08 to 4.53; 2 studies, 1655 participants) (both high-quality evidence) and is probably more effective in achieving mycological cure (RR 2.31, 95% CI 1.08 to 4.94; 3 studies, 1716 participants; moderate-quality evidence). Risk of adverse events (such as dermatitis and vesicles) was slightly higher with efinaconazole (RR 1.10, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.20; 3 studies, 1701 participants; high-quality evidence). No other key comparison measured clinical cure. Based on two studies, compared with vehicle, tavaborole 5% solution is probably more effective in achieving complete cure (RR 7.40, 95% CI 2.71 to 20.24; 1198 participants), but probably has a higher risk of adverse events (application site reactions were most commonly reported) (RR 3.82, 95% CI 1.65 to 8.85; 1186 participants (both moderate-quality evidence)). Tavaborole improves mycological cure (RR 3.40, 95% CI 2.34 to 4.93; 1198 participants; high-quality evidence). Moderate-quality evidence from two studies (490 participants) indicates that P-3051 (ciclopirox 8% hydrolacquer) is probably more effective than the comparators ciclopirox 8% lacquer or amorolfine 5% in achieving complete cure (RR 2.43, 95% CI 1.32 to 4.48), but there is probably little or no difference between the treatments in achieving mycological cure (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.37). We found no difference in the risk of adverse events (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.19 to 1.92; 2 studies, 487 participants; low-quality evidence). The most common events were erythema, rash, and burning. Three studies (112 participants) compared 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser to no treatment or sham treatment. We are uncertain if there is a difference in adverse events (very low-quality evidence) (two studies; 85 participants). There may be little or no difference in mycological cure at 52 weeks (RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.59 to 1.85; 2 studies, 85 participants; low-quality evidence). Complete cure was not measured. One study (293 participants) compared luliconazole 5% solution to vehicle. We are uncertain whether luliconazole leads to higher rates of complete cure (very low-quality evidence). Low-quality evidence indicates there may be little or no difference in adverse events (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.16) and there may be increased mycological cure with luliconazole; however, the 95% CI indicates that luliconazole may make little or no difference to mycological cure (RR 1.39, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.97). Commonly-reported adverse events were dry skin, paronychia, eczema, and hyperkeratosis, which improved or resolved post-treatment.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Assessing complete cure, high-quality evidence supports the effectiveness of efinaconazole, moderate-quality evidence supports P-3051 (ciclopirox 8% hydrolacquer) and tavaborole, and low-quality evidence supports ciclopirox 8% lacquer. We are uncertain whether luliconazole 5% solution leads to complete cure (very low-quality evidence); this outcome was not measured by the 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser comparison. Although evidence supports topical treatments, complete cure rates with topical treatments are relatively low. We are uncertain if 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser increases adverse events compared with no treatment or sham treatment (very low-quality evidence). Low-quality evidence indicates that there is no difference in adverse events between P-3051 (ciclopirox hydrolacquer), luliconazole 5% solution, and their comparators. Ciclopirox 8% lacquer may increase adverse events (low-quality evidence). High- to moderate-quality evidence suggests increased adverse events with efinaconazole 10% solution or tavaborole 5% solution. We downgraded evidence for heterogeneity, lack of blinding, and small sample sizes. There is uncertainty about the effectiveness of device-based treatments, which were under-represented; 80% of studies assessed topical treatments, but we were unable to evaluate all of the currently relevant topical treatments. Future studies of topical and device-based therapies should be blinded, with patient-centred outcomes and an adequate sample size. They should specify the causative organism and directly compare treatments.

Issues affecting nanomedicines on the way from the bench to the market

The development of innovative nanomedicine has raised the standards over the last few decades.

European Dermatology Forum guidelines on topical photodynamic therapy 2019 Part 2: emerging indications - field cancerization, photorejuvenation and inflammatory/infective dermatoses

In addition to approved indications in non-melanoma skin cancer in immunocompetent patients, topical photodynamic therapy (PDT) has also been studied for its place in the treatment of, as well as its potential to prevent, superficial skin cancers in immune-suppressed patients, although sustained clearance rates are lower than for immune-competent individuals. PDT using a nanoemulsion of ALA in a daylight or conventional PDT protocol has been approved for use in field cancerization, although evidence of the potential of the treatment to prevent new SCC remained limited. High-quality evidence supports a strong recommendation for the use of topical PDT in photorejuvenation as well as for acne, refractory warts, cutaneous leishmaniasis and in onychomycosis, although these indications currently lack approvals for use and protocols remain to be optimized, with more comparative evidence with established therapies required to establish its place in practice. Adverse events across all indications for PDT can be minimized through the use of modified and low-irradiance regimens, with a low risk of contact allergy to photosensitizer prodrugs, and no other significant documented longer-term risks with no current evidence of cumulative toxicity or photocarcinogenic risk. The literature on the pharmacoeconomics for using PDT is also reviewed, although accurate comparisons are difficult to establish in different healthcare settings, comparing hospital/office-based therapies of PDT and surgery with topical ointments, requiring inclusion of number of visits, real-world efficacy as well as considering the value to be placed on cosmetic outcome and patient preference. This guideline, published over two parts, considers all current approved and emerging indications for the use of topical photodynamic therapy in Dermatology prepared by the PDT subgroup of the European Dermatology Forum guidelines committee. It presents consensual expert recommendations reflecting current published evidence.

Global perspectives for the management of onychomycosis

Onychomycosis is a fungal nail infection caused by dermatophytes, nondermatophyte molds, and yeasts. This difficult-to-treat chronic infection has a tendency to relapse despite treatment. This paper aims to offer a global perspective on onychomycosis management from expert physicians from around the world. Overall, the majority of experts surveyed used systemic, topical, and combination treatments approved in their countries and monitored patients based on the product insert or government recommendations. Although the basics of treating onychomycosis were similar between countries, slight differences in onychomycosis management between countries were found. These differences were mainly due to different approaches to adjunctive therapy, rating the severity of disease and use of prophylaxis treatment. A global perspective on the treatment of onychomycosis provides a framework of success for the committed clinician with appreciation of how onychomycosis is managed worldwide.

Recent progress in the engineering of multifunctional colloidal nanoparticles for enhanced photodynamic therapy and bioimaging

This up-to-date review summarizes the design and current fabrication strategies that have been employed in the area of mono- and multifunctional colloidal nanoparticles - nanocarriers well suited for photodynamic therapy (PDT) and diagnostic purposes. Rationally engineered photosensitizer (PS)-loaded nanoparticles may be achieved via either noncovalent (i.e., self-aggregation, interfacial deposition, interfacial polymerization, or core-shell entrapment along with physical adsorption) or covalent (chemical immobilization or conjugation) processes. These PS loading approaches should provide chemical and physical stability to PS payloads. Their hydrophilic surfaces, capable of appreciable surface interactions with biological systems, can be further modified using functional groups (stealth effect) to achieve prolonged circulation in the body after administration and/or grafted by targeting agents (such as ligands, which bind to specific receptors uniquely expressed on the cell surface) or stimuli (e.g., pH, temperature, and light)-responsive moieties to improve their action and targeting efficiency. These attempts may in principle permit efficacious PDT, combination therapies, molecular diagnosis, and - in the case of nanotheranostics - simultaneous monitoring and treatment. Nanophotosensitizers (nano-PSs) should possess appropriate morphologies, sizes, unimodal distributions and surface processes to be successfully delivered to the place of action after systemic administration and should be accumulated in certain tumors by passive and/or active targeting. Additionally, physically facilitating drug delivery systems emerge as a promising approach to enhancing drug delivery, especially for the non-invasive treatment of deep-seated malignant tissues. Recent advances in nano-PSs are scrutinized, with an emphasis on design principles, via the promising use of colloid chemistry and nanotechnology.

Quenching Effects of Graphene Oxides on the Fluorescence Emission and Reactive Oxygen Species Generation of Chloroaluminum Phthalocyanine

The photophysical behavior and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by chloroaluminum phthalocyanine (AlClPc) are evaluated by steady state absorption/emission, transient emission, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies in the presence of graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (RGO), and carboxylated nanographene oxide (NGO). AlClPc and graphene oxides form a supramolecular structure stabilized by π-π interactions, which quantitatively quenches fluorescence emission and suppresses ROS generation. These effects occur even when graphenes are previously functionalized with Pluronic F-127. A small part of quenching is due to an inner filter effect, in which graphene oxides compete with AlClPc for light absorption. Nonetheless, most of the (static) quenching arises on the formation of a nonemissive ground state complex between AlClPc and graphene oxides. The efficiency of graphene oxides on the fluorescence quenching and ROS generation suppression follows the order: GO < NGO < RGO.

Leveraging Engineering of Indocyanine Green-Encapsulated Polymeric Nanocomposites for Biomedical Applications

In recent times, photo-induced therapeutics have attracted enormous interest from researchers due to such attractive properties as preferential localization, excellent tissue penetration, high therapeutic efficacy, and minimal invasiveness, among others. Numerous photosensitizers have been considered in combination with light to realize significant progress in therapeutics. Along this line, indocyanine green (ICG), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved near-infrared (NIR, >750 nm) fluorescent dye, has been utilized in various biomedical applications such as drug delivery, imaging, and diagnosis, due to its attractive physicochemical properties, high sensitivity, and better imaging view field. However, ICG still suffers from certain limitations for its utilization as a molecular imaging probe in vivo, such as concentration-dependent aggregation, poor in vitro aqueous stability and photodegradation due to various physicochemical attributes. To overcome these limitations, much research has been dedicated to engineering numerous multifunctional polymeric composites for potential biomedical applications. In this review, we aim to discuss ICG-encapsulated polymeric nanoconstructs, which are of particular interest in various biomedical applications. First, we emphasize some attractive properties of ICG (including physicochemical characteristics, optical properties, metabolic features, and other aspects) and some of its current limitations. Next, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview highlighting recent reports on various polymeric nanoparticles that carry ICG for light-induced therapeutics with a set of examples. Finally, we summarize with perspectives highlighting the significant outcome, and current challenges of these nanocomposites.