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Moon H, Min K, Winarto J, Shin S, Jeon H, Song DG, Son H. Proteomic Analysis of Cell Wall Proteins with Various Linkages in Fusarium graminearum. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:6028-6039. [PMID: 38457781 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c07746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
The fungal cell wall, primarily comprising a glucan-chitin matrix and cell wall proteins (CWPs), serves as a key mediator for fungal interactions with the environment and plays a pivotal role in virulence. In this study, we employed a comprehensive proteomics approach to analyze the CWPs in the plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum. Our methodology successfully extracted and identified 1373 CWPs, highlighting their complex linkages, including noncovalent bonds, disulfide bridges, alkali-sensitive linkages, and glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors. A significant subset of these proteins, enriched in Gene Ontology terms, suggest multifunctional roles of CWPs. Through the integration of transcriptomic and proteomic data, we observed differential expression patterns of CWPs across developmental stages. Specifically, we focused on two genes, Fca7 and Cpd1, which were upregulated in planta, and confirmed their localization predominantly outside the plasma membrane, primarily in the cell wall and periplasmic space. The disruption of FCA7 reduced virulence on wheat, aligning with previous findings and underscoring its significance. Overall, our findings offer a comprehensive proteomic profile of CWPs in F. graminearum, laying the groundwork for a deeper understanding of their roles in the development and interactions with host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heeji Moon
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghun Min
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Department of Plant Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung 25457, Republic of Korea
| | - Jessica Winarto
- Natural Product Informatics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Gangneung Institute of Natural Products, Gangneung 25451, Republic of Korea
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Soobin Shin
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hosung Jeon
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae-Geun Song
- Natural Product Informatics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Gangneung Institute of Natural Products, Gangneung 25451, Republic of Korea
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, University of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Hokyoung Son
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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Thakur R, Shishodia SK, Sharma A, Chauhan A, Kaur S, Shankar J. Accelerating the understanding of Aspergillus terreus: Epidemiology, physiology, immunology and advances. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2024; 6:100220. [PMID: 38303967 PMCID: PMC10831165 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2024.100220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus species encompass a variety of infections, ranging from invasive aspergillosis to allergic conditions, contingent upon the immune status of the host. In this spectrum, Aspergillus terreus stands out due to its emergence as a notable pathogen and its intrinsic resistance to amphotericin-B. The significance of Aspergillus-associated infections has witnessed a marked increase in the past few decades, particularly with the increasing number of immunocompromised individuals. The exploration of epidemiology, morphological transitions, immunopathology, and novel treatment approaches such as new antifungal drugs (PC945, olorofim) and combinational therapy using antifungal drugs and phytochemicals (Phytochemicals: quercetin, shikonin, artemisinin), also using immunotherapies to modulate immune response has resulted in better outcomes. Furthermore, in the context COVID-19 era and its aftermath, fungal infections have emerged as a substantial challenge for both immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. This is attributed to the use of immune-suppressing therapies during COVID-19 infections and the increase in transplant cases. Consequently, this review aims to provide an updated overview encompassing the epidemiology, germination events, immunopathology, and novel drug treatment strategies against Aspergillus terreus-associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Thakur
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
| | | | - Ananya Sharma
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Arjun Chauhan
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Applied Sciences and Humanities, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sumanpreet Kaur
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
| | - Jata Shankar
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India
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3
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Canto-Canché B, Burgos-Canul YY, Chi-Chuc D, Tzec-Simá M, Ku-González A, Brito-Argáez L, Carrillo-Pech M, De Los Santos-Briones C, Canseco-Pérez MÁ, Luna-Moreno D, Beltrán-García MJ, Islas-Flores I. Moonlight-like proteins are actually cell wall components in Pseudocercospora fijiensis. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:232. [PMID: 37349471 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03676-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
The fungal cell wall protects fungi against threats, both biotic and abiotic, and plays a role in pathogenicity by facilitating host adhesion, among other functions. Although carbohydrates (e.g. glucans, chitin) are the most abundant components, the fungal cell wall also harbors ionic proteins, proteins bound by disulfide bridges, alkali-extractable, SDS-extractable, and GPI-anchored proteins, among others; the latter consisting of suitable targets which can be used for fungal pathogen control. Pseudocercospora fijiensis is the causal agent of black Sigatoka disease, the principal threat to banana and plantain worldwide. Here, we report the isolation of the cell wall of this pathogen, followed by extensive washing to eliminate all loosely associated proteins and conserve those integrated to its cell wall. In the HF-pyridine protein fraction, one of the most abundant protein bands was recovered from SDS-PAGE gels, electro-eluted and sequenced. Seven proteins were identified from this band, none of which were GPI-anchored proteins. Instead, atypical (moonlight-like) cell wall proteins were identified, suggesting a new class of atypical proteins, bound to the cell wall by unknown linkages. Western blot and histological analyses of the cell wall fractions support that these proteins are true cell wall proteins, most likely involved in fungal pathogenesis/virulence, since they were found conserved in many fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blondy Canto-Canché
- Unidad de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Yamily Yazmin Burgos-Canul
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Deysi Chi-Chuc
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
- Escuela Telebachillerato Comunitario de Xcunya, Calle 20, Mérida, México
| | - Miguel Tzec-Simá
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Angela Ku-González
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Ligia Brito-Argáez
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Mildred Carrillo-Pech
- Unidad de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - César De Los Santos-Briones
- Unidad de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México
| | - Miguel Ángel Canseco-Pérez
- Dirección de Investigación, Evaluación y Posgrado, Universidad Tecnológica de Tlaxcala, Carretera a el Carmen Xalplatlahuaya s/n. El Carmen Xalplatlahuaya, Tlaxcala, Huamantla, C.P. 90500, Mexico
| | - Donato Luna-Moreno
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica AC, División de Fotónica, Loma del Bosque 115, Col. Lomas del Campestre, León, Gto, C.P. 37150, México
| | | | - Ignacio Islas-Flores
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular de Plantas, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Colonia Chuburná de Hidalgo, Calle 43 No. 130 x 32 y 34, Mérida, A.C., Yucatán, C.P. 97205, México.
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Scott J, Valero C, Mato-López Á, Donaldson IJ, Roldán A, Chown H, Van Rhijn N, Lobo-Vega R, Gago S, Furukawa T, Morogovsky A, Ben Ami R, Bowyer P, Osherov N, Fontaine T, Goldman GH, Mellado E, Bromley M, Amich J. Aspergillus fumigatus Can Display Persistence to the Fungicidal Drug Voriconazole. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0477022. [PMID: 36912663 PMCID: PMC10100717 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04770-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is a filamentous fungus that can infect the lungs of patients with immunosuppression and/or underlying lung diseases. The mortality associated with chronic and invasive aspergillosis infections remain very high, despite availability of antifungal treatments. In the last decade, there has been a worrisome emergence and spread of resistance to the first-line antifungals, the azoles. The mortality caused by resistant isolates is even higher, and patient management is complicated as the therapeutic options are reduced. Nevertheless, treatment failure is also common in patients infected with azole-susceptible isolates, which can be due to several non-mutually exclusive reasons, such as poor drug absorption. In addition, the phenomena of tolerance or persistence, where susceptible pathogens can survive the action of an antimicrobial for extended periods, have been associated with treatment failure in bacterial infections, and their occurrence in fungal infections already proposed. Here, we demonstrate that some isolates of A. fumigatus display persistence to voriconazole. A subpopulation of the persister isolates can survive for extended periods and even grow at low rates in the presence of supra-MIC of voriconazole and seemingly other azoles. Persistence cannot be eradicated with adjuvant drugs or antifungal combinations and seemed to reduce the efficacy of treatment for certain individuals in a Galleria mellonella model of infection. Furthermore, persistence implies a distinct transcriptional profile, demonstrating that it is an active response. We propose that azole persistence might be a relevant and underestimated factor that could influence the outcome of infection in human aspergillosis. IMPORTANCE The phenomena of antibacterial tolerance and persistence, where pathogenic microbes can survive for extended periods in the presence of cidal drug concentrations, have received significant attention in the last decade. Several mechanisms of action have been elucidated, and their relevance for treatment failure in bacterial infections demonstrated. In contrast, our knowledge of antifungal tolerance and, in particular, persistence is still very limited. In this study, we have characterized the response of the prominent fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus to the first-line therapy antifungal voriconazole. We comprehensively show that some isolates display persistence to this fungicidal antifungal and propose various potential mechanisms of action. In addition, using an alternative model of infection, we provide initial evidence to suggest that persistence may cause treatment failure in some individuals. Therefore, we propose that azole persistence is an important factor to consider and further investigate in A. fumigatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Scott
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Clara Valero
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Álvaro Mato-López
- Mycology Reference Laboratory (Laboratorio de Referencia e Investigación en Micología [LRIM]), National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ian J. Donaldson
- Bioinformatics Core Facility, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandra Roldán
- Mycology Reference Laboratory (Laboratorio de Referencia e Investigación en Micología [LRIM]), National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Harry Chown
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Norman Van Rhijn
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Rebeca Lobo-Vega
- Mycology Reference Laboratory (Laboratorio de Referencia e Investigación en Micología [LRIM]), National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara Gago
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Takanori Furukawa
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Alma Morogovsky
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ronen Ben Ami
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Paul Bowyer
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Nir Osherov
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Thierry Fontaine
- Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, INRAE, USC2019, Unité Biologie et Pathogénicité Fongiques, Paris, France
| | - Gustavo H. Goldman
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Emilia Mellado
- Mycology Reference Laboratory (Laboratorio de Referencia e Investigación en Micología [LRIM]), National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
- CiberInfec ISCIII, CIBER en Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Michael Bromley
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge Amich
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Division of Evolution, Infection, and Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Mycology Reference Laboratory (Laboratorio de Referencia e Investigación en Micología [LRIM]), National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
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Shankar J. Insight into the metabolic changes during germination of Aspergillus niger conidia using nLC-qTOF. Biologia (Bratisl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-022-01115-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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6
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Baltussen TJH, Coolen JPM, Verweij PE, Dijksterhuis J, Melchers WJG. Identifying Conserved Generic Aspergillus spp. Co-Expressed Gene Modules Associated with Germination Using Cross-Platform and Cross-Species Transcriptomics. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:270. [PMID: 33916245 PMCID: PMC8067318 DOI: 10.3390/jof7040270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus spp. is an opportunistic human pathogen that may cause a spectrum of pulmonary diseases. In order to establish infection, inhaled conidia must germinate, whereby they break dormancy, start to swell, and initiate a highly polarized growth process. To identify critical biological processes during germination, we performed a cross-platform, cross-species comparative analysis of germinating A. fumigatus and A. niger conidia using transcriptional data from published RNA-Seq and Affymetrix studies. A consensus co-expression network analysis identified four gene modules associated with stages of germination. These modules showed numerous shared biological processes between A. niger and A. fumigatus during conidial germination. Specifically, the turquoise module was enriched with secondary metabolism, the black module was highly enriched with protein synthesis, the darkgreen module was enriched with protein fate, and the blue module was highly enriched with polarized growth. More specifically, enriched functional categories identified in the blue module were vesicle formation, vesicular transport, tubulin dependent transport, actin-dependent transport, exocytosis, and endocytosis. Genes important for these biological processes showed similar expression patterns in A. fumigatus and A. niger, therefore, they could be potential antifungal targets. Through cross-platform, cross-species comparative analysis, we were able to identify biologically meaningful modules shared by A. fumigatus and A. niger, which underscores the potential of this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim J. H. Baltussen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (J.P.M.C.); (P.E.V.); (W.J.G.M.)
- Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jordy P. M. Coolen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (J.P.M.C.); (P.E.V.); (W.J.G.M.)
- Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul E. Verweij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (J.P.M.C.); (P.E.V.); (W.J.G.M.)
- Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Dijksterhuis
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Willem J. G. Melchers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (J.P.M.C.); (P.E.V.); (W.J.G.M.)
- Center of Expertise in Mycology Radboudumc/CWZ, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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7
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Horianopoulos LC, Kronstad JW. Chaperone Networks in Fungal Pathogens of Humans. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:209. [PMID: 33809191 PMCID: PMC7998936 DOI: 10.3390/jof7030209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The heat shock proteins (HSPs) function as chaperones to facilitate proper folding and modification of proteins and are of particular importance when organisms are subjected to unfavourable conditions. The human fungal pathogens are subjected to such conditions within the context of infection as they are exposed to human body temperature as well as the host immune response. Herein, the roles of the major classes of HSPs are briefly reviewed and their known contributions in human fungal pathogens are described with a focus on Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus. The Hsp90s and Hsp70s in human fungal pathogens broadly contribute to thermotolerance, morphological changes required for virulence, and tolerance to antifungal drugs. There are also examples of J domain co-chaperones and small HSPs influencing the elaboration of virulence factors in human fungal pathogens. However, there are diverse members in these groups of chaperones and there is still much to be uncovered about their contributions to pathogenesis. These HSPs do not act in isolation, but rather they form a network with one another. Interactions between chaperones define their specific roles and enhance their protein folding capabilities. Recent efforts to characterize these HSP networks in human fungal pathogens have revealed that there are unique interactions relevant to these pathogens, particularly under stress conditions. The chaperone networks in the fungal pathogens are also emerging as key coordinators of pathogenesis and antifungal drug tolerance, suggesting that their disruption is a promising strategy for the development of antifungal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James W. Kronstad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada;
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8
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Ranjan N, Pochopien AA, Chih-Chien Wu C, Beckert B, Blanchet S, Green R, V Rodnina M, Wilson DN. Yeast translation elongation factor eEF3 promotes late stages of tRNA translocation. EMBO J 2021; 40:e106449. [PMID: 33555093 PMCID: PMC7957392 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020106449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to the conserved translation elongation factors eEF1A and eEF2, fungi require a third essential elongation factor, eEF3. While eEF3 has been implicated in tRNA binding and release at the ribosomal A and E sites, its exact mechanism of action is unclear. Here, we show that eEF3 acts at the mRNA–tRNA translocation step by promoting the dissociation of the tRNA from the E site, but independent of aminoacyl‐tRNA recruitment to the A site. Depletion of eEF3 in vivo leads to a general slowdown in translation elongation due to accumulation of ribosomes with an occupied A site. Cryo‐EM analysis of native eEF3‐ribosome complexes shows that eEF3 facilitates late steps of translocation by favoring non‐rotated ribosomal states, as well as by opening the L1 stalk to release the E‐site tRNA. Additionally, our analysis provides structural insights into novel translation elongation states, enabling presentation of a revised yeast translation elongation cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namit Ranjan
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Agnieszka A Pochopien
- Gene Center, Department for Biochemistry and Center for integrated Protein Science Munich (CiPSM), University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Colin Chih-Chien Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Bertrand Beckert
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sandra Blanchet
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Rachel Green
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marina V Rodnina
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel N Wilson
- Gene Center, Department for Biochemistry and Center for integrated Protein Science Munich (CiPSM), University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Abstract
Aspergilli produce conidia for reproduction or to survive hostile conditions, and they are highly effective in the distribution of conidia through the environment. In immunocompromised individuals, inhaled conidia can germinate inside the respiratory tract, which may result in invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. The management of invasive aspergillosis has become more complex, with new risk groups being identified and the emergence of antifungal resistance. Patient survival is threatened by these developments, stressing the need for alternative therapeutic strategies. As germination is crucial for infection, prevention of this process might be a feasible approach. A broader understanding of conidial germination is important to identify novel antigermination targets. In this review, we describe conidial resistance against various stresses, transition from dormant conidia to hyphal growth, the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in germination of the most common Aspergillus species, and promising antigermination targets. Germination of Aspergillus is characterized by three morphotypes: dormancy, isotropic growth, and polarized growth. Intra- and extracellular proteins play an important role in the protection against unfavorable environmental conditions. Isotropically expanding conidia remodel the cell wall, and biosynthetic machineries are needed for cellular growth. These biosynthetic machineries are also important during polarized growth, together with tip formation and the cell cycle machinery. Genes involved in isotropic and polarized growth could be effective antigermination targets. Transcriptomic and proteomic studies on specific Aspergillus morphotypes will improve our understanding of the germination process and allow discovery of novel antigermination targets and biomarkers for early diagnosis and therapy.
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10
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Shishodia SK, Tiwari S, Shankar J. Resistance mechanism and proteins in Aspergillus species against antifungal agents. Mycology 2019; 10:151-165. [PMID: 31448149 PMCID: PMC6691784 DOI: 10.1080/21501203.2019.1574927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus species contain pathogenic and opportunistic fungal pathogens which have the potential
to cause mycosis (invasive aspergillosis) in humans. The existing antifungal drugs have
limitation largely due to the development of drug-resistant isolates. To gain insight
into the mechanism of action and antifungal drug resistance in Aspergillus species including biofilm formation, we have reviewed protein
data of Aspergillus species during interaction with
antifungals drugs (polynes, azoles and echinocandin) and phytochemicals (artemisinin,
coumarin and quercetin). Our analyses provided a list of Aspergillus proteins (72 proteins) that were abundant during interaction
with different antifungal agents. On the other hand, there are 26 proteins, expression
level of which is affected by more than two antifungal agents, suggesting the more
general response to the stress induced by the antifungal agents. Our analysis showed
enzymes from cell wall remodelling, oxidative stress response and energy metabolism are
the responsible factors for providing resistance against antifungal drugs in Aspergillus species and could be explored further in clinical
isolates. Also, these findings have clinical importance since the effect of drug
targeting different proteins can be potentiated by combination therapy. We have also
discussed the opportunities ahead to study the functional role of proteins from
environmental and clinical isolates of Aspergillus during
its interaction with the antifungal drugs. Abbreviations IPA: invasive pulmonary aspergillosis; IA: invasive aspergillosis; AmB: Amphotericin B;
CAS: Caspofungin; VRC: Voriconazole; ITC: Itraconazole; POS: Posaconazole; ART:
Artemisinin; QRT: Quercetin; CMR: Coumarin; MIC: minimal inhibitory concentration
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Kumari Shishodia
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Shraddha Tiwari
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Jata Shankar
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
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11
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Shankar J, Tiwari S, Shishodia SK, Gangwar M, Hoda S, Thakur R, Vijayaraghavan P. Molecular Insights Into Development and Virulence Determinants of Aspergilli: A Proteomic Perspective. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:180. [PMID: 29896454 PMCID: PMC5986918 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus species are the major cause of health concern worldwide in immunocompromised individuals. Opportunistic Aspergilli cause invasive to allergic aspergillosis, whereas non-infectious Aspergilli have contributed to understand the biology of eukaryotic organisms and serve as a model organism. Morphotypes of Aspergilli such as conidia or mycelia/hyphae helped them to survive in favorable or unfavorable environmental conditions. These morphotypes contribute to virulence, pathogenicity and invasion into hosts by excreting proteins, enzymes or toxins. Morphological transition of Aspergillus species has been a critical step to infect host or to colonize on food products. Thus, we reviewed proteins from Aspergilli to understand the biological processes, biochemical, and cellular pathways that are involved in transition and morphogenesis. We majorly analyzed proteomic studies on A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus, and A. niger to gain insight into mechanisms involved in the transition from conidia to mycelia along with the role of secondary metabolites. Proteome analysis of morphotypes of Aspergilli provided information on key biological pathways required to exit conidial dormancy, consortia of virulent factors and mycotoxins during the transition. The application of proteomic approaches has uncovered the biological processes during development as well as intermediates of secondary metabolite biosynthesis pathway. We listed key proteins/ enzymes or toxins at different morphological types of Aspergillus that could be applicable in discovery of novel therapeutic targets or metabolite based diagnostic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jata Shankar
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Shraddha Tiwari
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Sonia K Shishodia
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Manali Gangwar
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
| | - Shanu Hoda
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, India
| | - Raman Thakur
- Genomic Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Solan, India
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12
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Thakur R, Shankar J. Proteome Profile of Aspergillus terreus Conidia at Germinating Stage: Identification of Probable Virulent Factors and Enzymes from Mycotoxin Pathways. Mycopathologia 2017. [PMID: 28647921 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-017-0161-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus terreus is an emerging opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals. The main risk group of individuals for this organism is leukopenic patients, individuals having cancers, bone marrow transplant persons and those who have immunological disorders. The lack of early diagnostic marker for A. terreus and intrinsic resistance to Amphotericin B, further limits the successful therapy of A. terreus-associated infections. The germination of inhaled conidia is the key step to establish successful invasion in host tissues or organs. Thus, profiling of expressed proteins during germination of conidia not only shed light on proteins that are involved in invasion or virulence but may also provide early diagnostic markers. We used nanoLC-Q-TOF to study the proteome of germinating conidia (at 16 h time points) of A. terreus. We observed expression of 373 proteins in germinating conidia of A. terreus. A total of 74 proteins were uncharacterized in the database. The expressed proteins were associated with various processes like cell wall modulation, virulence factors and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. The most abundant proteins were associated with protein biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism and unknown functions. Among virulent proteins, mitogen-activated protein kinase (hog1) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (mpkC) are key virulent proteins observed in our study. We observed 7 enzymes from terretonin and 10 enzymes from geodin mycotoxin biosynthesis pathway. Interestingly, we observed expression of terrelysin protein, associated with blood cell lysis. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed 26-fold increase in transcripts encoding for dihydrogeodin oxidase and 885-fold for terrelysin gene in germinating conidia in comparison to conidia. Further, we propose that terrelysin protein and secondary metabolite such as geodin could be explored as diagnostic marker for A. terreus-associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Thakur
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173234, India
| | - Jata Shankar
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173234, India.
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13
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Olmedo GM, Cerioni L, González MM, Cabrerizo FM, Volentini SI, Rapisarda VA. UVA Photoactivation of Harmol Enhances Its Antifungal Activity against the Phytopathogens Penicillium digitatum and Botrytis cinerea. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:347. [PMID: 28326067 PMCID: PMC5339243 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi responsible for post-harvest diseases on fruit and vegetables cause important economic losses. We have previously reported that harmol (1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indol-7-ol) is active against the causal agents of green and gray molds Penicillium digitatum and Botrytis cinerea, respectively. Here, antifungal activity of harmol was characterized in terms of pH dependency and conidial targets; also photodynamic effects of UVA irradiation on the antimicrobial action were evaluated. Harmol was able to inhibit the growth of both post-harvest fungal disease agents only in acidic conditions (pH 5), when it was found in its protonated form. Conidia treated with harmol exhibited membrane integrity loss, cell wall disruption, and cytoplasm disorganization. All these deleterious effects were more evident for B. cinerea in comparison to P. digitatum. When conidial suspensions were irradiated with UVA in the presence of harmol, antimicrobial activity against both pathogens was enhanced, compared to non-irradiated conditions. B. cinerea exhibited a high intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) when was incubated with harmol in irradiated and non-irradiated treatments. P. digitatum showed a significant increase in ROS accumulation only when treated with photoexcited harmol. The present work contributes to unravel the antifungal activity of harmol and its photoexcited counterpart against phytopathogenic conidia, focusing on ROS accumulation which could account for damage on different cellular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela M. Olmedo
- INSIBIO (CONICET, UNT), Instituto de Química Biológica “Dr. Bernabé Bloj”, Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, UNTTucumán, Argentina
| | - Luciana Cerioni
- INSIBIO (CONICET, UNT), Instituto de Química Biológica “Dr. Bernabé Bloj”, Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, UNTTucumán, Argentina
| | | | | | - Sabrina I. Volentini
- INSIBIO (CONICET, UNT), Instituto de Química Biológica “Dr. Bernabé Bloj”, Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, UNTTucumán, Argentina
| | - Viviana A. Rapisarda
- INSIBIO (CONICET, UNT), Instituto de Química Biológica “Dr. Bernabé Bloj”, Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, UNTTucumán, Argentina
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14
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Canela HMS, Takami LA, da Silva Ferreira ME. cipC is important for Aspergillus fumigatus virulence. APMIS 2017; 125:141-147. [PMID: 28120495 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is the main causative agent of invasive aspergillosis, a disease that affects immunocompromised patients and has a high mortality rate. We previously observed that the transcription of a cipC-like gene was increased when A. fumigatus encountered an increased CO2 concentration, as occurs during the infection process. CipC is a protein of unknown function that might be associated with fungal pathogenicity. In this study, the cipC gene was disrupted in A. fumigatus to evaluate its importance for fungal pathogenicity. The gene was replaced, and the germination, growth phenotype, stress responses, and virulence of the resultant mutant were assessed. Although cipC was not essential, its deletion attenuated A. fumigatus virulence in a low-dose murine infection model, suggesting the involvement of the cipC gene in the virulence of this fungus. This study is the first to disrupt the cipC gene in A. fumigatus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciano Akira Takami
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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15
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Nano-LC-Q-TOF Analysis of Proteome Revealed Germination of Aspergillus flavus Conidia is Accompanied by MAPK Signalling and Cell Wall Modulation. Mycopathologia 2016; 181:769-786. [PMID: 27576557 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-016-0056-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus is the second most leading cause of aspergillosis. The ability of A. flavus to adapt within the host environment is crtical for its colonization. Onset of germination of conidia is one of the crucial events; thus, in order to gain insight into A. flavus molecular adaptation while germination, protein profile of A. flavus was obtained. Approximately 82 % of conidia showed germination at 7 h; thus, samples were collected followed by protein extraction and subjected to nLC-Q-TOF mass spectrometer. Q-TOF data were analysed using Protein Lynx Global Services (PLGS 2.2.5) software. A total of 416 proteins were identified from UniProt Aspergillus species database. Orthologues of A. flavus was observed in A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. terreus, A. oryzae, etc. Proteins were further analysed in NCBI database, which showed that 27 proteins of A. flavus are not reported in UniProt and NCBI database. Functional characterization of proteins resulted majorly to cell wall synthesis and degradation, metabolisms (carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism), protein synthesis and degradation. Proteins/enzymes associated with aflatoxin biosynthesis were observed. We also observed Dicer-like proteins 1, 2 and autophagy-related proteins 2, 9, 18, 13, 11, 22. Expression of protein/enzymes associated with MAPK signalling pathway suggests their role during the germination process. Overall, the data present a catalogue of proteins/enzymes involved in the germination of A. flavus conidia and could also be applied to other Aspergillus species.
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16
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Moloney NM, Owens RA, Doyle S. Proteomic analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus – clinical implications. Expert Rev Proteomics 2016; 13:635-49. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2016.1203783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sean Doyle
- Department of Biology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
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17
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Pellon A, Ramirez-Garcia A, Buldain I, Antoran A, Rementeria A, Hernando FL. Immunoproteomics-Based Analysis of the Immunocompetent Serological Response to Lomentospora prolificans. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:595-607. [PMID: 26732945 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The filamentous fungus Lomentospora prolificans is an emerging pathogen causing severe infections mainly among the immunocompromised population. These diseases course with high mortality rates due to great virulence of the fungus, its inherent resistance to available antifungals, and absence of specific diagnostic tools. Despite being widespread in humanized environments, L. prolificans rarely causes infections in immunocompetent individuals likely due to their developed protective immune response. In this study, conidial and hyphal immunomes against healthy human serum IgG were analyzed, identifying immunodominant antigens and establishing their prevalence among the immunocompetent population. Thirteen protein spots from each morph were detected as reactive against at least 70% of serum samples, and identified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Hence, the most seroprevalent antigens were WD40 repeat 2 protein, malate dehydrogenase, and DHN1, in conidia, and heat shock protein (Hsp) 70, Hsp90, ATP synthase β subunit, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, in hyphae. More interestingly, the presence of some of these seroprevalent antigens was determined on the cell surface, as Hsp70, enolase, or Hsp90. Thus, we have identified a diverse set of antigenic proteins, both in the entire proteome and cell surface subproteome, which may be used as targets to develop innovative therapeutic or diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aize Pellon
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Andoni Ramirez-Garcia
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Idoia Buldain
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Aitziber Antoran
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Aitor Rementeria
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Fernando L Hernando
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group. Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology. Faculty of Science and Technology. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) , Leioa 48940, Spain
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18
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Desoubeaux G, Chandenier J. [Contribution of proteomics in medical mycology in 2014: For who? For what?]. J Mycol Med 2014; 25:95-8. [PMID: 25510712 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2014.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Desoubeaux
- Service de parasitologie, mycologie, médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France; Faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, CEPR, Inserm U1100/EA 6305, 37032 Tours cedex 01, France.
| | - J Chandenier
- Service de parasitologie, mycologie, médecine tropicale, CHU de Tours, 37044 Tours cedex 09, France; Faculté de médecine, université François-Rabelais, CEPR, Inserm U1100/EA 6305, 37032 Tours cedex 01, France
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19
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Teixeira MM, de Almeida LGP, Kubitschek-Barreira P, Alves FL, Kioshima ÉS, Abadio AKR, Fernandes L, Derengowski LS, Ferreira KS, Souza RC, Ruiz JC, de Andrade NC, Paes HC, Nicola AM, Albuquerque P, Gerber AL, Martins VP, Peconick LDF, Neto AV, Chaucanez CB, Silva PA, Cunha OL, de Oliveira FFM, dos Santos TC, Barros ALN, Soares MA, de Oliveira LM, Marini MM, Villalobos-Duno H, Cunha MML, de Hoog S, da Silveira JF, Henrissat B, Niño-Vega GA, Cisalpino PS, Mora-Montes HM, Almeida SR, Stajich JE, Lopes-Bezerra LM, Vasconcelos ATR, Felipe MSS. Comparative genomics of the major fungal agents of human and animal Sporotrichosis: Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix brasiliensis. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:943. [PMID: 25351875 PMCID: PMC4226871 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The fungal genus Sporothrix includes at least four human pathogenic species. One of these species, S. brasiliensis, is the causal agent of a major ongoing zoonotic outbreak of sporotrichosis in Brazil. Elsewhere, sapronoses are caused by S. schenckii and S. globosa. The major aims on this comparative genomic study are: 1) to explore the presence of virulence factors in S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis; 2) to compare S. brasiliensis, which is cat-transmitted and infects both humans and cats with S. schenckii, mainly a human pathogen; 3) to compare these two species to other human pathogens (Onygenales) with similar thermo-dimorphic behavior and to other plant-associated Sordariomycetes. RESULTS The genomes of S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis were pyrosequenced to 17x and 20x coverage comprising a total of 32.3 Mb and 33.2 Mb, respectively. Pair-wise genome alignments revealed that the two species are highly syntenic showing 97.5% average sequence identity. Phylogenomic analysis reveals that both species diverged about 3.8-4.9 MYA suggesting a recent event of speciation. Transposable elements comprise respectively 0.34% and 0.62% of the S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis genomes and expansions of Gypsy-like elements was observed reflecting the accumulation of repetitive elements in the S. brasiliensis genome. Mitochondrial genomic comparisons showed the presence of group-I intron encoding homing endonucleases (HE's) exclusively in S. brasiliensis. Analysis of protein family expansions and contractions in the Sporothrix lineage revealed expansion of LysM domain-containing proteins, small GTPases, PKS type1 and leucin-rich proteins. In contrast, a lack of polysaccharide lyase genes that are associated with decay of plants was observed when compared to other Sordariomycetes and dimorphic fungal pathogens, suggesting evolutionary adaptations from a plant pathogenic or saprobic to an animal pathogenic life style. CONCLUSIONS Comparative genomic data suggest a unique ecological shift in the Sporothrix lineage from plant-association to mammalian parasitism, which contributes to the understanding of how environmental interactions may shape fungal virulence. . Moreover, the striking differences found in comparison with other dimorphic fungi revealed that dimorphism in these close relatives of plant-associated Sordariomycetes is a case of convergent evolution, stressing the importance of this morphogenetic change in fungal pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus M Teixeira
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | | | - Paula Kubitschek-Barreira
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Fernanda L Alves
- />Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
- />Grupo Informática de Biossistemas, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Minas, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
| | - Érika S Kioshima
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
- />Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, PR Brazil
| | - Ana KR Abadio
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Larissa Fernandes
- />Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências e Tecnologias em Saúde, Universidade de Brasília, Ceilândia, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Lorena S Derengowski
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Karen S Ferreira
- />Instituto de Ciências Ambientais, Químicas e Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Campus Diadema, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Rangel C Souza
- />Laboratório Nacional de Computação Científica, Petrópolis, RJ Brazil
| | - Jeronimo C Ruiz
- />Grupo Informática de Biossistemas, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Minas, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
| | - Nathalia C de Andrade
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Hugo C Paes
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - André M Nicola
- />Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
- />Programa de pós-graduação em Medicina Tropical, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Patrícia Albuquerque
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
- />Programa de pós-graduação em Medicina Tropical, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | | | - Vicente P Martins
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Luisa DF Peconick
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Alan Viggiano Neto
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Claudia B Chaucanez
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Patrícia A Silva
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Oberdan L Cunha
- />Laboratório Nacional de Computação Científica, Petrópolis, RJ Brazil
| | | | - Tayná C dos Santos
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Amanda LN Barros
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
| | - Marco A Soares
- />Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
| | - Luciana M de Oliveira
- />Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
- />Programa de pós-graduação em Bioinformática, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marjorie M Marini
- />Departamento de Microbiologia Imunobiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Héctor Villalobos-Duno
- />Centro de Microbiología y Biología Celular, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Marcel ML Cunha
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Sybren de Hoog
- />CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - José F da Silveira
- />Departamento de Microbiologia Imunobiologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Bernard Henrissat
- />Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille, Université, CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Gustavo A Niño-Vega
- />Centro de Microbiología y Biología Celular, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Patrícia S Cisalpino
- />Grupo Informática de Biossistemas, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Minas, Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil
| | | | - Sandro R Almeida
- />Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Jason E Stajich
- />Department of Plant Pathology & Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA USA
| | - Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | | | - Maria SS Felipe
- />Departamento de Biologia Celular, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
- />Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF Brazil
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20
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Virginio ED, Kubitschek-Barreira PH, Batista MV, Schirmer MR, Abdelhay E, Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Lopes-Bezerra LM. Immunoproteome of Aspergillus fumigatus using sera of patients with invasive aspergillosis. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:14505-30. [PMID: 25141105 PMCID: PMC4159865 DOI: 10.3390/ijms150814505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasive aspergillosis is a life-threatening lung or systemic infection caused by the opportunistic mold Aspergillus fumigatus. The disease affects mainly immunocompromised hosts, and patients with hematological malignances or who have been submitted to stem cell transplantation are at high risk. Despite the current use of Platelia™ Aspergillus as a diagnostic test, the early diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis remains a major challenge in improving the prognosis of the disease. In this study, we used an immunoproteomic approach to identify proteins that could be putative candidates for the early diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Antigenic proteins expressed in the first steps of A. fumigatus germination occurring in a human host were revealed using 2-D Western immunoblots with the serum of patients who had previously been classified as probable and proven for invasive aspergillosis. Forty antigenic proteins were identified using mass spectrometry (MS/MS). A BLAST analysis revealed that two of these proteins showed low homology with proteins of either the human host or etiological agents of other invasive fungal infections. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing specific antigenic proteins of A. fumigatus germlings that are recognized by sera of patients with confirmed invasive aspergillosis who were from two separate hospital units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emylli D Virginio
- Laboratory of Cellular Mycology and Proteomics, Biology Institute, University of Rio de Janeiro State (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro 20550-013, Brazil.
| | - Paula H Kubitschek-Barreira
- Laboratory of Cellular Mycology and Proteomics, Biology Institute, University of Rio de Janeiro State (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro 20550-013, Brazil.
| | - Marjorie Vieira Batista
- Laboratory of Immunology (LIM 48), Clinics Hospital and Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo R Schirmer
- National Cancer Institute, Center for Bone Marrow Transplants, Rio de Janeiro 20230-130, Brazil.
| | - Eliana Abdelhay
- National Cancer Institute, Center for Bone Marrow Transplants, Rio de Janeiro 20230-130, Brazil.
| | - Maria A Shikanai-Yasuda
- Laboratory of Immunology (LIM 48), Clinics Hospital and Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil.
| | - Leila M Lopes-Bezerra
- Laboratory of Cellular Mycology and Proteomics, Biology Institute, University of Rio de Janeiro State (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro 20550-013, Brazil.
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Longo LV, da Cunha JP, Sobreira TJ, Puccia R. Proteome of cell wall-extracts from pathogenic Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: Comparison among morphological phases, isolates, and reported fungal extracellular vesicle proteins. EUPA OPEN PROTEOMICS 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.euprot.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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22
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Wang XY, Luo JP, Chen R, Zha XQ, Wang H. The effects of daily supplementation of Dendrobium huoshanense polysaccharide on ethanol-induced subacute liver injury in mice by proteomic analysis. Food Funct 2014; 5:2020-35. [DOI: 10.1039/c3fo60629e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Host biomarkers of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis to monitor therapeutic response. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:3373-8. [PMID: 24687510 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02482-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is a life-threatening disease of immunocompromised patients that requires aggressive therapy. Detection of the disease and monitoring of the therapeutic response during IPA are complex, and current molecular diagnostics are not suitably robust. Here, we explored proteomic profiles of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) specimens from a persistently neutropenic rabbit model of IPA. Three experimental arms, uninfected control animals, infected untreated animals, and animals infected and treated with ravuconazole/amphotericin B, were studied. Total proteins were evaluated by two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis, followed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight/time of flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Host-derived proteins haptoglobin (Hp), C-reactive protein (CRP), and annexin A1 (Anx A1) were prominently found in BALF during the IPA infection and showed significant changes in response to antifungal therapy (P < 0.0001). In serum, differences in Hp (P = 0.0001) between infected and treated rabbits were observed. Preliminary in vitro studies revealed that Aspergillus fumigatus-secreted proteases may contribute to the cleavage of Anx A1 during IPA. In summary, host protein biomarkers Hp, CRP, and Anx A1 may have value in monitoring therapeutic response to antifungal agents in IPA patients with confirmed disease.
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Desoubeaux G, Jourdan ML, Valera L, Jardin B, Hem S, Caille A, Cormier B, Marchand-Adam S, Bailly É, Diot P, Chandenier J. Proteomic demonstration of the recurrent presence of inter-alpha-inhibitor H4 heavy-chain during aspergillosis induced in an animal model. Int J Med Microbiol 2013; 304:327-38. [PMID: 24360996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis remains a matter of great concern in oncology/haematology, intensive care units and organ transplantation departments. Despite the availability of various diagnostic tools with attractive features, new markers of infection are required for better medical care. We therefore looked for potential pulmonary biomarkers of aspergillosis, by carrying out two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis comparing the proteomes of bronchial-alveolar lavage fluids (BALF) from infected rats and from control rats presenting non-specific inflammation, both immunocompromised. A bioinformatic analysis of the 2D-maps revealed significant differences in the abundance of 20 protein spots (ANOVA P-value<0.01; q-value<0.03; power>0.8). One of these proteins, identified by mass spectrometry, was considered of potential interest: inter-alpha-inhibitor H4 heavy-chain (ITIH4), characterised for the first time in this infectious context. Western blotting confirmed its overabundance in all infected BALF, particularly at early stages of murine aspergillosis. Further investigations were carried on rat serum, and confirmed that ITIH4 levels increased during experimental aspergillosis. Preliminary results in human samples strengthened this trend. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the involvement of ITIH4 in aspergillosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Desoubeaux
- CHU de Tours, Service de Parasitologie - Mycologie - Médecine tropicale, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais, CEPR UMR-INSERM U1100/E.A. 6305, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France.
| | - Marie-Lise Jourdan
- CHU de Tours, Service d'Hématologie Biologique, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais, INSERM U1069/N2C, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France
| | - Lionel Valera
- Sysdiag, CNRS UMR 3145 Bio-Rad, Cap Delta, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Sonia Hem
- Plateforme de spectrométrie de masse protéomique - MSPP, Laboratoire de Protéomique Fonctionnelle, INRA UR1199, Montpellier, France
| | - Agnès Caille
- CHU de Tours, Centre d'Investigation Clinique, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais, INSERM 202, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France
| | - Bénédicte Cormier
- CHU de Tours, Service d'Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques, Tours, France
| | - Sylvain Marchand-Adam
- Université François Rabelais, CEPR UMR-INSERM U1100/E.A. 6305, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France; CHU de Tours, Service de Pneumologie, Tours, France
| | - Éric Bailly
- CHU de Tours, Service de Parasitologie - Mycologie - Médecine tropicale, Tours, France
| | - Patrice Diot
- Université François Rabelais, CEPR UMR-INSERM U1100/E.A. 6305, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France; CHU de Tours, Service de Pneumologie, Tours, France
| | - Jacques Chandenier
- CHU de Tours, Service de Parasitologie - Mycologie - Médecine tropicale, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais, CEPR UMR-INSERM U1100/E.A. 6305, Faculté de Médecine, Tours, France
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25
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Castro RA, Kubitschek-Barreira PH, Teixeira PAC, Sanches GF, Teixeira MM, Quintella LP, Almeida SR, Costa RO, Camargo ZP, Felipe MSS, de Souza W, Lopes-Bezerra LM. Differences in cell morphometry, cell wall topography and gp70 expression correlate with the virulence of Sporothrix brasiliensis clinical isolates. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75656. [PMID: 24116065 PMCID: PMC3792129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a chronic infectious disease affecting both humans and animals. For many years, this subcutaneous mycosis had been attributed to a single etiological agent; however, it is now known that this taxon consists of a complex of at least four pathogenic species, including Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix brasiliensis. Gp70 was previously shown to be an important antigen and adhesin expressed on the fungal cell surface and may have a key role in immunomodulation and host response. The aim of this work was to study the virulence, morphometry, cell surface topology and gp70 expression of clinical isolates of S. brasiliensis compared with two reference strains of S. schenckii. Several clinical isolates related to severe human cases or associated with the Brazilian zoonotic outbreak of sporotrichosis were genotyped and clustered as S. brasiliensis. Interestingly, in a murine subcutaneous model of sporotrichosis, these isolates showed a higher virulence profile compared with S. schenckii. A single S. brasiliensis isolate from an HIV-positive patient not only showed lower virulence but also presented differences in cell morphometry, cell wall topography and abundant gp70 expression compared with the virulent isolates. In contrast, the highly virulent S. brasiliensis isolates showed reduced levels of cell wall gp70. These observations were confirmed by the topographical location of the gp70 antigen using immunoelectromicroscopy in both species. In addition, the gp70 molecule was sequenced and identified using mass spectrometry, and the sequenced peptides were aligned into predicted proteins using Blastp with the S. schenckii and S. brasiliensis genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela A. Castro
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Paula H. Kubitschek-Barreira
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Pedro A. C. Teixeira
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Glenda F. Sanches
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcus M. Teixeira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Leonardo P. Quintella
- Departamento de Patologia e Laboratórios, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Sandro R. Almeida
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosane O. Costa
- Laboratório de Micologia, Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto, UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Zoilo P. Camargo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria S. S. Felipe
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leila M. Lopes-Bezerra
- Laboratório de Micologia Celular e Proteômica, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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26
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Silveira CP, Piffer AC, Kmetzsch L, Fonseca FL, Soares DA, Staats CC, Rodrigues ML, Schrank A, Vainstein MH. The heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 of Cryptococcus neoformans is associated with the fungal cell surface and influences the interaction between yeast and host cells. Fungal Genet Biol 2013; 60:53-63. [PMID: 23954835 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans secretes numerous proteins, such as heat shock proteins, by unconventional mechanisms during its interaction with host cells. Hsp70 is a conserved chaperone that plays important roles in various cellular processes, including the interaction of fungi with host immune cells. Here, we report that sera from individuals with cryptococcosis infection recognize a recombinant C. neoformans Hsp70 (Cn_rHsp70). Moreover, immunofluorescence assays using antibodies against Cn_rHsp70 revealed the localization of this protein at the cell surface mainly in association with the capsular network. We found that the addition of Cn_rHsp70 positively modulated the interaction of C. neoformans with human alveolar epithelial cells and decreased fungal killing by mouse macrophages, without affecting phagocytosis rates. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that there was a competitive association among the receptor, GXM and Cn_rHsp70, indicating that the Hsp70-binding sites in host cells appear to be shared by glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), the major capsular antigen in C. neoformans. Our observations suggest additional mechanisms by which Hsp70 influences the interaction of C. neoformans with host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina P Silveira
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Rodrigues ML, Franzen AJ, Nimrichter L, Miranda K. Vesicular mechanisms of traffic of fungal molecules to the extracellular space. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:414-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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