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Alfa-Ibrahim Adio A, Malami I, Lawal N, Jega AY, Abubakar B, Bello MB, Ibrahim KG, Abubakar MB, Abdussamad A, Imam MU. Neurotoxic snakebites in Africa: Clinical implications, therapeutic strategies, and antivenom efficacy. Toxicon 2024; 247:107811. [PMID: 38917892 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.107811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Snakebite is a significant health concern in Africa, particularly due to neurotoxic envenomation which can lead to neuromuscular paralysis and respiratory failure. In Nigeria, snakes from the Elapidae family are a notable cause of envenomation cases, though these incidents are underreported. This review examined case reports of neurotoxic envenomation in Africa, highlighting the clinical impacts and the efficacy of available antivenoms. Preclinical studies showed that the polyvalent antivenom from the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR) was highly effective against neurotoxicity with a protective efficacy (R) of 1346.80 mg/mL, while clinical assessment emphasized the need for high-dose antivenom therapy along with supportive measures like mechanical ventilation. Unlike hemorrhagic envenomation, where antivenom promptly resolves bleeding, neurotoxic cases often require additional interventions. The review underscores the necessity for tailored approaches in antivenom therapy to address the complexities of neurotoxic snakebites and reduce their public health burden in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulbaki Alfa-Ibrahim Adio
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Chemical and Life Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Ibrahim Malami
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Nafiu Lawal
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Amina Yusuf Jega
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Bilyaminu Abubakar
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Muhammad Bashir Bello
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Vaccine Development Unit, Infectious Disease Research Development, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kasimu Ghandi Ibrahim
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Basic Medical and Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Zarqa University, P.O. Box 2000, Zarqa, 13110, Jordan; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Murtala Bello Abubakar
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Abdussamad Abdussamad
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Mustapha Umar Imam
- Centre for Advanced Medical Research and Training, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
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Gómez A, Sánchez A, Durán G, Villalta M, Segura Á, Vargas M, Herrera M, Sánchez M, Gutiérrez JM, León G. Intrageneric cross-reactivity of monospecific rabbit antisera against venoms of mamba (Elapidae: Dendroaspis spp.) snakes. Toxicon X 2024; 21:100183. [PMID: 38274651 PMCID: PMC10808963 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenomation is a neglected tropical disease posing a high toll of mortality and morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa. Polyspecific antivenoms of broad effectiveness and specially designed for this region require a detailed understanding of the immunological features of the mamba snake (Dendroaspis spp.) venoms for the selection of the most appropriate antigen combination to produce antivenoms of wide neutralizing scope. Monospecific antisera were generated in rabbits against the venoms of the four species of mambas. The toxic effects of the immunization scheme in the animals were evaluated, antibody titers were estimated using immunochemical assays, and neutralization of lethal activity was assessed. By the end of the immunization schedule, rabbits showed normal values of the majority of hematological parameters tested. No muscle tissue damage was noticed, and no alterations in most serum chemical parameters were observed. Immunological analyses revealed a variable extent of cross-reactivity of the monospecific antisera against the heterologous venoms. The venoms of D. jamesoni and D. viridis generated the antisera with broader cross-reactivity by immunochemical parameters. The venoms of D. polylepis and D. viridis generated the antisera with better cross-neutralization of lethality, although the neutralizing ability of all antisera was lower than 0.16 mg venom/mL antiserum against either homologous or heterologous venoms. These experimental results must be scaled to large animal models used in antivenom manufacture at industrial level to assess whether these predictions are reproducible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarón Gómez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Andrés Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Gina Durán
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauren Villalta
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mariángela Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - María Herrera
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Melvin Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Slagboom J, Lewis AH, Schouten WM, van Haperen R, Veltman M, Bittenbinder MA, Vonk FJ, Casewell NR, Grosveld F, Drabek D, Kool J. High throughput identification of human monoclonal antibodies and heavy-chain-only antibodies to treat snakebite. Toxicon X 2024; 21:100185. [PMID: 38425752 PMCID: PMC10901844 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2024.100185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a priority Neglected Tropical Disease that causes an estimated 81,000-135,000 fatalities each year. The development of a new generation of safer, affordable, and accessible antivenom therapies is urgently needed. With this goal in mind, rigorous characterisation of the specific toxins in snake venom is key to generating novel therapies for snakebite. Monoclonal antibodies directed against venom toxins are emerging as potentially strong candidates in the development of new snakebite diagnostics and treatment. Venoms comprise many different toxins of which several are responsible for their pathological effects. Due to the large variability of venoms within and between species, formulations of combinations of human antibodies are proposed as the next generation antivenoms. Here a high-throughput screening method employing antibody-based ligand fishing of venom toxins in 384 filter-well plate format has been developed to determine the antibody target/s The approach uses Protein G beads for antibody capture followed by exposure to a full venom or purified toxins to bind their respective ligand toxin(s). This is followed by a washing/centrifugation step to remove non-binding toxins and an in-well tryptic digest. Finally, peptides from each well are analysed by nanoLC-MS/MS and subsequent Mascot database searching to identify the bound toxin/s for each antibody under investigation. The approach was successfully validated to rapidly screen antibodies sourced from hybridomas, derived from venom-immunised mice expressing either regular human antibodies or heavy-chain-only human antibodies (HCAbs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Slagboom
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
| | - Abigail H. Lewis
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
| | - Wietse M. Schouten
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
| | - Rien van Haperen
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Harbour BioMed, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mieke Veltman
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Harbour BioMed, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mátyás A. Bittenbinder
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Freek J. Vonk
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Frank Grosveld
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Harbour BioMed, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dubravka Drabek
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Harbour BioMed, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081HV, the Netherlands
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Dingwoke EJ, Adamude FA, Salihu A, Abubakar MS, Sallau AB. Toxicological analyses of the venoms of Nigerian vipers Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans. Trop Med Health 2024; 52:15. [PMID: 38282015 PMCID: PMC10823708 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-024-00581-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Among the medically important snakes in Nigeria, Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans have the most lethal venom. These venoms were classified according to the presence of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), snake venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2s), and snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs). Toxicological analyzes were performed to understand the significance of different protein families in venoms. METHODS Proteins were separated from venom using column chromatography. The skin and footpad of mice were used to determine hemorrhagic and edematogenic activities. Caprine blood plasma was used to test fibrinolytic activity in vitro. RESULTS The results showed that, compared to the crude venom, the SVMP fraction induced hemorrhagic effects with a diameter of 26.00 ± 1.00 mm in E. ocellatus and 21.33 ± 1.52 mm in B. arietans. Both SVSP and SVMP had anticoagulant effects; however, the SVSP fraction had a stronger effect, with a longer anticoagulation time of 30.00 ± 3.00 min in E. ocellatus and 26.00 ± 2.00 min in B. arietans. These main venom toxins, SVMPs, SVSPs, and PLA2, were found to have edema-forming effects that were optimal at 2 h after envenomation. PLA2s had the highest edema-inducing activity, with onset 30 min after envenomation. CONCLUSIONS Given the importance of SVMPs in altering the integrity of the membrane structure and impairing the blood coagulation system, an antivenom that can specifically neutralize its activity could inhibit the hemorrhage effects of the venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeka John Dingwoke
- Department of Tropical Diseases, UNESCO-International Center for Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria.
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
| | - Fatima Adis Adamude
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Federal University, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Aliyu Salihu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Mujitaba Suleiman Abubakar
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Abdullahi Balarabe Sallau
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
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Menzies SK, Arinto-Garcia R, Amorim FG, Cardoso IA, Abada C, Crasset T, Durbesson F, Edge RJ, El-Kazzi P, Hall S, Redureau D, Stenner R, Boldrini-França J, Sun H, Roldão A, Alves PM, Harrison RA, Vincentelli R, Berger I, Quinton L, Casewell NR, Schaffitzel C. ADDovenom: Thermostable Protein-Based ADDomer Nanoparticles as New Therapeutics for Snakebite Envenoming. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:673. [PMID: 38133177 PMCID: PMC10747859 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15120673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming can be a life-threatening medical emergency that requires prompt medical intervention to neutralise the effects of venom toxins. Each year up to 138,000 people die from snakebites and threefold more victims suffer life-altering disabilities. The current treatment of snakebite relies solely on antivenom-polyclonal antibodies isolated from the plasma of hyperimmunised animals-which is associated with numerous deficiencies. The ADDovenom project seeks to deliver a novel snakebite therapy, through the use of an innovative protein-based scaffold as a next-generation antivenom. The ADDomer is a megadalton-sized, thermostable synthetic nanoparticle derived from the adenovirus penton base protein; it has 60 high-avidity binding sites to neutralise venom toxins. Here, we outline our experimental strategies to achieve this goal using state-of-the-art protein engineering, expression technology and mass spectrometry, as well as in vitro and in vivo venom neutralisation assays. We anticipate that the approaches described here will produce antivenom with unparalleled efficacy, safety and affordability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie K. Menzies
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Raquel Arinto-Garcia
- iBET, Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Technológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Fernanda Gobbi Amorim
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, Allée du six Aout 11, Quartier Agora, Liège Université, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Iara Aimê Cardoso
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Camille Abada
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Thomas Crasset
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, Allée du six Aout 11, Quartier Agora, Liège Université, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Fabien Durbesson
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Rebecca J. Edge
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Priscila El-Kazzi
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Hall
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck Bristol Centre for Minimal Biology, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Damien Redureau
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, Allée du six Aout 11, Quartier Agora, Liège Université, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Richard Stenner
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck Bristol Centre for Minimal Biology, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Johara Boldrini-França
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck Bristol Centre for Minimal Biology, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Huan Sun
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck Bristol Centre for Minimal Biology, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - António Roldão
- iBET, Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Technológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paula M. Alves
- iBET, Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Technológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
- ITQB NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Robert A. Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Renaud Vincentelli
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Imre Berger
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck Bristol Centre for Minimal Biology, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - Loïc Quinton
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, MolSys Research Unit, Allée du six Aout 11, Quartier Agora, Liège Université, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Centre for Drugs & Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Christiane Schaffitzel
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
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Patel RN, Clare RH, Ledsgaard L, Nys M, Kool J, Laustsen AH, Ulens C, Casewell NR. An in vitro assay to investigate venom neurotoxin activity on muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation and for the discovery of toxin-inhibitory molecules. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 216:115758. [PMID: 37604290 PMCID: PMC10570928 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that causes over 100,000 deaths annually. Envenomings result in variable pathologies, but systemic neurotoxicity is among the most serious and is currently only treated with difficult to access and variably efficacious commercial antivenoms. Venom-induced neurotoxicity is often caused by α-neurotoxins antagonising the muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), a ligand-gated ion channel. Discovery of therapeutics targeting α-neurotoxins is hampered by relying on binding assays that do not reveal restoration of receptor activity or more costly and/or lower throughput electrophysiology-based approaches. Here, we report the validation of a screening assay for nAChR activation using immortalised TE671 cells expressing the γ-subunit containing muscle-type nAChR and a fluorescent dye that reports changes in cell membrane potential. Assay validation using traditional nAChR agonists and antagonists, which either activate or block ion fluxes, was consistent with previous studies. We then characterised antagonism of the nAChR by a variety of elapid snake venoms that cause muscle paralysis in snakebite victims, before defining the toxin-inhibiting activities of commercial antivenoms, and new types of snakebite therapeutic candidates, namely monoclonal antibodies, decoy receptors, and small molecules. Our findings show robust evidence of assay uniformity across 96-well plates and highlight the amenability of this approach for the future discovery of new snakebite therapeutics via screening campaigns. The described assay therefore represents a useful first-step approach for identifying α-neurotoxins and their inhibitors in the context of snakebite envenoming, and it should provide wider value for studying modulators of nAChR activity from other sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit N Patel
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Rachel H Clare
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Line Ledsgaard
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mieke Nys
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Chris Ulens
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK; Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, L3 5QA, UK.
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7
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Hiremath K, Dodakallanavar J, Sampat GH, Patil VS, Harish DR, Chavan R, Hegde HV, Roy S. Three finger toxins of elapids: structure, function, clinical applications and its inhibitors. Mol Divers 2023:10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3. [PMID: 37749455 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The WHO lists snakebite as a "neglected tropical disease". In tropical and subtropical areas, envenoming is an important public health issue. This review article describes the structure, function, chemical composition, natural inhibitors, and clinical applications of Elapids' Three Finger Toxins (3FTX) using scientific research data. The primary venomous substance belonging to Elapidae is 3FTX, that targets nAChR. Three parallel β-sheets combine to create 3FTX, which has four or five disulfide bonds. The three primary types of 3FTX are short-chain, long-chain, and nonconventional 3FTX. The functions of 3FTX depend on the specific toxin subtype and the target receptor or ion channel. The well-known effect of 3FTX is probably neurotoxicity because of the severe consequences of muscular paralysis and respiratory failure in snakebite victims. 3FTX have also been studied for their potential clinical applications. α-bungarotoxin has been used as a molecular probe to study the structure and function of nAChRs (Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors). Acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) isoforms 1a and 1b are inhibited by Mambalgins, derived from Black mamba venom, which hinders their function and provide an analgesic effect. α- Cobra toxin is a neurotoxin purified from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) binds to nAChR at the neuronal junction and causes an analgesic effect for moderate to severe pain. Some of the plants and their compounds have been shown to inhibit the activity of 3FTX, and their mechanisms of action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashinath Hiremath
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Jagadeesh Dodakallanavar
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Ganesh H Sampat
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Vishal S Patil
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Darasaguppe R Harish
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Rajashekar Chavan
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Harsha V Hegde
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Subarna Roy
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
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8
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Nguyen GTT, O'Brien C, Wouters Y, Seneci L, Gallissà-Calzado A, Campos-Pinto I, Ahmadi S, Laustsen AH, Ljungars A. High-throughput proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of the 26 medically most important elapids and vipers from sub-Saharan Africa. Gigascience 2022; 11:6862934. [PMID: 36509548 PMCID: PMC9744630 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes are important parts of the ecosystem, and their behavior and evolution have been shaped by their surrounding environments over the eons. This is reflected in their venoms, which are typically highly adapted for their biological niche, including their diet and defense mechanisms for deterring predators. Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in venomous snake species, of which many are dangerous to humans due to the high toxicity of their venoms and their ability to effectively deliver large amounts of venom into their victims via their bite. In this study, the venoms of 26 of sub-Saharan Africa's medically most relevant elapid and viper species were subjected to parallelized toxicovenomics analysis. The analysis included venom proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of whole venom toxicities, enabling a robust comparison of venom profiles between species. The data presented here corroborate previous studies and provide biochemical details for the clinical manifestations observed in envenomings by the 26 snake species. Moreover, two new venom proteomes (Naja anchietae and Echis leucogaster) are presented here for the first time. Combined, the presented data can help shine light on snake venom evolutionary trends and possibly be used to further improve or develop novel antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yessica Wouters
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lorenzo Seneci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alex Gallissà-Calzado
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Isabel Campos-Pinto
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Correspondence address. Andreas H. Laustsen, Technical University of Denmark, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads 239, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby. E-mail:
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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9
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Offor BC, Muller B, Piater LA. A Review of the Proteomic Profiling of African Viperidae and Elapidae Snake Venoms and Their Antivenom Neutralisation. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110723. [PMID: 36355973 PMCID: PMC9694588 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) that results from the injection of snake venom of a venomous snake into animals and humans. In Africa (mainly in sub-Saharan Africa), over 100,000 envenomings and over 10,000 deaths per annum from snakebite have been reported. Difficulties in snakebite prevention and antivenom treatment are believed to result from a lack of epidemiological data and underestimated figures on snakebite envenoming-related morbidity and mortality. There are species- and genus-specific variations associated with snake venoms in Africa and across the globe. These variations contribute massively to diverse differences in venom toxicity and pathogenicity that can undermine the efficacy of adopted antivenom therapies used in the treatment of snakebite envenoming. There is a need to profile all snake venom proteins of medically important venomous snakes endemic to Africa. This is anticipated to help in the development of safer and more effective antivenoms for the treatment of snakebite envenoming within the continent. In this review, the proteomes of 34 snake venoms from the most medically important snakes in Africa, namely the Viperidae and Elipdae, were extracted from the literature. The toxin families were grouped into dominant, secondary, minor, and others based on the abundance of the protein families in the venom proteomes. The Viperidae venom proteome was dominated by snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs-41%), snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs-16%), and phospholipase A2 (PLA2-17%) protein families, while three-finger toxins (3FTxs-66%) and PLA2s (16%) dominated those of the Elapidae. We further review the neutralisation of these snake venoms by selected antivenoms widely used within the African continent. The profiling of African snake venom proteomes will aid in the development of effective antivenom against snakebite envenoming and, additionally, could possibly reveal therapeutic applications of snake venom proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedict C. Offor
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
| | - Beric Muller
- South Africa Venom Suppliers CC, Louis Trichardt 0920, South Africa
| | - Lizelle A. Piater
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-11-559-2403
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10
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Bibliometric Analysis of Literature in Snake Venom-Related Research Worldwide (1933–2022). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12162058. [PMID: 36009648 PMCID: PMC9405337 DOI: 10.3390/ani12162058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Around the world, snake envenomation poses a serious health risk. Proteins with pharmacological effects are present in snake venom. Recent studies elaborate snake venom and its potential application, including as a cancer drug and antibacterial substances. Our study aimed to analyze the global profile of the literature in snake venom research from documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. In total, 2999 documents were published with Brazil showing the highest productivity. Antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are emerging as hot topics on a global scale. The present study offers a distinctive overview of snake venom research conducted worldwide. Abstract Snake envenomation is a severe economic and health concern affecting countries worldwide. Snake venom carries a wide variety of small peptides and proteins with various immunological and pharmacological properties. A few key research areas related to snake venom, including its applications in treating cancer and eradicating antibiotic-resistant bacteria, have been gaining significant attention in recent years. The goal of the current study was to analyze the global profile of literature in snake venom research. This study presents a bibliometric review of snake venom-related research documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. The overall number of documents published on a global scale was 2999, with an average annual production of 34 documents. Brazil produced the highest number of documents (n = 729), followed by the United States (n = 548), Australia (n = 240), and Costa Rica (n = 235). Since 1963, the number of publications has been steadily increasing globally. At a worldwide level, antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are growing hot issues for research in this field. The current research provides a unique overview of snake venom research at global level from 1933 through 2022, and it may be beneficial in guiding future research.
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11
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Adrião AAX, dos Santos AO, de Lima EJSP, Maciel JB, Paz WHP, da Silva FMA, Pucca MB, Moura-da-Silva AM, Monteiro WM, Sartim MA, Koolen HHF. Plant-Derived Toxin Inhibitors as Potential Candidates to Complement Antivenom Treatment in Snakebite Envenomations. Front Immunol 2022; 13:842576. [PMID: 35615352 PMCID: PMC9126284 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.842576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenomations (SBEs) are a neglected medical condition of global importance that mainly affect the tropical and subtropical regions. Clinical manifestations include pain, edema, hemorrhage, tissue necrosis, and neurotoxic signs, and may evolve to functional loss of the affected limb, acute renal and/or respiratory failure, and even death. The standard treatment for snake envenomations is antivenom, which is produced from the hyperimmunization of animals with snake toxins. The inhibition of the effects of SBEs using natural or synthetic compounds has been suggested as a complementary treatment particularly before admission to hospital for antivenom treatment, since these alternative molecules are also able to inhibit toxins. Biodiversity-derived molecules, namely those extracted from medicinal plants, are promising sources of toxin inhibitors that can minimize the deleterious consequences of SBEs. In this review, we systematically synthesize the literature on plant metabolites that can be used as toxin-inhibiting agents, as well as present the potential mechanisms of action of molecules derived from natural sources. These findings aim to further our understanding of the potential of natural products and provide new lead compounds as auxiliary therapies for SBEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asenate A. X. Adrião
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Aline O. dos Santos
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Emilly J. S. P. de Lima
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Jéssica B. Maciel
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Weider H. P. Paz
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Felipe M. A. da Silva
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
- Multidisciplinary Support Center, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Manuela B. Pucca
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil
| | - Ana M. Moura-da-Silva
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wuelton M. Monteiro
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Marco A. Sartim
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- University Nilton Lins, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Hector H. F. Koolen
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
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12
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13
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Snake Venomics: Fundamentals, Recent Updates, and a Look to the Next Decade. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040247. [PMID: 35448856 PMCID: PMC9028316 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomic research, powered by techniques adapted from proteomics, transcriptomics, and genomics, seeks to unravel the diversity and complexity of venom through which knowledge can be applied in the treatment of envenoming, biodiscovery, and conservation. Snake venom proteomics is most extensively studied, but the methods varied widely, creating a massive amount of information which complicates data comparison and interpretation. Advancement in mass spectrometry technology, accompanied by growing databases and sophisticated bioinformatic tools, has overcome earlier limitations of protein identification. The progress, however, remains challenged by limited accessibility to samples, non-standardized quantitative methods, and biased interpretation of -omic data. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies enable high-throughput venom-gland transcriptomics and genomics, complementing venom proteomics by providing deeper insights into the structural diversity, differential expression, regulation and functional interaction of the toxin genes. Venomic tissue sampling is, however, difficult due to strict regulations on wildlife use and transfer of biological materials in some countries. Limited resources for techniques and funding are among other pertinent issues that impede the progress of venomics, particularly in less developed regions and for neglected species. Genuine collaboration between international researchers, due recognition of regional experts by global organizations (e.g., WHO), and improved distribution of research support, should be embraced.
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14
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Varespladib (LY315920) rescued mice from fatal neurotoxicity caused by venoms of five major Asiatic kraits (Bungarus spp.) in an experimental envenoming and rescue model. Acta Trop 2022; 227:106289. [PMID: 34929179 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The venoms of Asiatic kraits (Bungarus spp.) contain various neurotoxic phospholipases A2 (beta-bungarotoxins) which can irreversibly damage motor nerve terminals, resulting in rapidly fatal suffocation by respiratory muscle paralysis or oral airway obstruction. Hence, there is a need of adjunct therapy at the pre-hospital stage to prevent or delay the onset of neurotoxicity, so that antivenom can be given within golden hour before the envenoming becomes antivenom-resistant. This study investigated the efficacy of varespladib, a small molecule PLA2 (phospholipase A2) inhibitor, given as a bolus subcutaneously upon the onset of krait venom-induced paralysis in a mouse experimental envenoming and rescue model, where the severity of neurotoxicity was scored and the survival rate was monitored over 24 h. Varespladib at 10 mg/kg effectively alleviated the neurotoxicity of Bungarus sindanus, Bungarus multicinctus and Bungarus fasciatus venoms, and rescued all mice from venom-induced lethality (100% survival). Varespladib at this dose, however, only partially reduced the neurotoxicity of Bungarus caeruleus and Bungarus candidus venoms, while all challenged mice were dead by 23 h (B. caeruleus) and 12 h (B. candidus). An increased dose of varespladib at 20 mg/kg markedly abated the venom neurotoxicity past 8 h of envenoming, and protected the mice from venom lethality (B. caeruleus: 75% survival; B. candidus: 100% survival). The finding is consistent with previous studies which demonstrated varespladib's inhibitory effect against some snake venoms. The findings suggest varespladib could be repurposed as an emergency drug for prevention or rescue (if given early enough) from the acute, neurotoxic envenoming syndromes caused by various major krait species in Asia.
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15
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Van Baelen AC, Robin P, Kessler P, Maïga A, Gilles N, Servent D. Structural and Functional Diversity of Animal Toxins Interacting With GPCRs. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:811365. [PMID: 35198603 PMCID: PMC8859281 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.811365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide toxins from venoms have undergone a long evolutionary process allowing host defense or prey capture and making them highly selective and potent for their target. This has resulted in the emergence of a large panel of toxins from a wide diversity of species, with varied structures and multiple associated biological functions. In this way, animal toxins constitute an inexhaustible reservoir of druggable molecules due to their interesting pharmacological properties. One of the most interesting classes of therapeutic targets is the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs represent the largest family of membrane receptors in mammals with approximately 800 different members. They are involved in almost all biological functions and are the target of almost 30% of drugs currently on the market. Given the interest of GPCRs in the therapeutic field, the study of toxins that can interact with and modulate their activity with the purpose of drug development is of particular importance. The present review focuses on toxins targeting GPCRs, including peptide-interacting receptors or aminergic receptors, with a particular focus on structural aspects and, when relevant, on potential medical applications. The toxins described here exhibit a great diversity in size, from 10 to 80 amino acids long, in disulfide bridges, from none to five, and belong to a large panel of structural scaffolds. Particular toxin structures developed here include inhibitory cystine knot (ICK), three-finger fold, and Kunitz-type toxins. We summarize current knowledge on the structural and functional diversity of toxins interacting with GPCRs, concerning first the agonist-mimicking toxins that act as endogenous agonists targeting the corresponding receptor, and second the toxins that differ structurally from natural agonists and which display agonist, antagonist, or allosteric properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Cécile Van Baelen
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Philippe Robin
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Pascal Kessler
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Arhamatoulaye Maïga
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- CHU Sainte Justine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Nicolas Gilles
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Denis Servent
- CEA, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour La Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- *Correspondence: Denis Servent,
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16
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Silva A, Hodgson WC, Tasoulis T, Isbister GK. Rodent Lethality Models Are Problematic for Evaluating Antivenoms for Human Envenoming. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:830384. [PMID: 35185582 PMCID: PMC8850383 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.830384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Silva
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Saliyapura, Sri Lanka
- Monash Venom Group, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Wayne C. Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Theo Tasoulis
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Geoffrey K. Isbister
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
- Clinical Toxicology Research Group, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Geoffrey K. Isbister,
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17
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Mender MM, Bolton F, Berry C, Young M. Antivenom: An immunotherapy for the treatment of snakebite envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 129:435-477. [PMID: 35305724 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming (SBE) leads to significant morbidity and mortality, resulting in over 90,000 deaths and approximately 400,000 amputations annually. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) alone, SBE accounts for over 30,000 deaths per annum. Since 2017, SBE has been classified as a priority Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The major species responsible for mortality from SBE within SSA are from the Bitis, Dendroaspis, Echis and Naja genera. Pharmacologically active toxins such as metalloproteinases, serine proteinases, 3-finger toxins, kunitz-type toxins, and phospholipase A2s are the primary snake venom components. These toxins induce cytotoxicity, coagulopathy, hemorrhage, and neurotoxicity in envenomed victims. Antivenom is currently the only available venom-specific treatment for SBE and contains purified equine or ovine polyclonal antibodies, collected from donor animals repeatedly immunized with low doses of adjuvanted venom. The resulting plasma or serum contains a high titre of specific antibodies, which can then be collected and stored until required. The purified antibodies are either whole IgG, monovalent fragment antibody (Fab) or divalent fragment antibody F(ab')2. Despite pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences, all three are effective in the treatment of SBE. No antivenom is without adverse reactions but, the level of their impact and severity varies from benign early adverse reactions to the rarely occurring fatal anaphylactic shock. However, the major side effects are largely reversible with immediate administration of adrenaline and corticosteroids. There are 16 different antivenoms marketed within SSA, but the efficacy and safety profiles are only published for less than 50% of these products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mender M Mender
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom.
| | - Fiona Bolton
- Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Berry
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Young
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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18
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Yu C, Li R, Yin X, Yu H, Li P. Synergistic Effect of Proteinase Activity by Purification and Identification of Toxic Protease From Nemopilema nomurai. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:791847. [PMID: 34899353 PMCID: PMC8660593 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.791847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Scyphozoan Nemopilema nomurai envenomation is an unresolved threat to human health in Asian waters. Nemopilema nomurai venom metalloproteinases show important toxicities in skin damage and inflammation, but there is still no purified protein for further studies. In this study, high proteinase activity fractions in tentacle autolysis were isolated by ammonium sulfate precipitation, DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow, and Superdex 75 chromatography successively. Purification was guided by azocasein hydrolysis activity and SDS-PAGE. The final products were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Four elution peaks purified by Superdex 75 chromatography had multiple protein bands but did not show proteinase activity. These fractions would recover proteinase activity after mixing again. Regulation mechanisms were speculated as binding metalloproteinase regulator or disaggregating metalloproteinase inhibitor by LC-MS/MS analysis. For the first time, a synergistic effect in N. nomurai proteinase activity was found in the purification process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlin Yu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Qingdao, China.,College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Rongfeng Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiujing Yin
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Qingdao, China.,College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Huahua Yu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Pengcheng Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
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19
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Palasuberniam P, Tan KY, Tan CH. De novo venom gland transcriptomics of Calliophis bivirgata flaviceps: uncovering the complexity of toxins from the Malayan blue coral snake. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210024. [PMID: 34616441 PMCID: PMC8476087 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The Malayan blue coral snake, Calliophis bivirgata
flaviceps, is a medically important venomous snake in Southeast
Asia. However, the complexity and diversity of its venom genes remain little
explored. Methods: To address this, we applied high-throughput next-generation sequencing to
profile the venom gland cDNA libraries of C. bivirgata
flaviceps. The transcriptome was de novo
assembled, followed by gene annotation, multiple sequence alignment and
analyses of the transcripts. Results: A total of 74 non-redundant toxin-encoding genes from 16 protein families
were identified, with 31 full-length toxin transcripts. Three-finger toxins
(3FTx), primarily delta-neurotoxins and cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like
proteins, were the most diverse and abundantly expressed. The major 3FTx
(Cb_FTX01 and Cb_FTX02) are highly similar to calliotoxin, a
delta-neurotoxin previously reported in the venom of C.
bivirgata. This study also revealed a conserved tyrosine
residue at position 4 of the cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like protein genes
in the species. These variants, proposed as Y-type CTX-like proteins, are
similar to the H-type CTX from cobras. The substitution is conservative
though, preserving a less toxic form of elapid CTX-like protein, as
indicated by the lack of venom cytotoxicity in previous laboratory and
clinical findings. The ecological role of these toxins, however, remains
unclear. The study also uncovered unique transcripts that belong to
phospholipase A2 of Groups IA and IB, and snake venom
metalloproteinases of PIII subclass, which show sequence variations from
those of Asiatic elapids. Conclusion: The venom gland transcriptome of C. bivirgata flaviceps from
Malaysia was de novo assembled and annotated. The diversity
and expression profile of toxin genes provide insights into the biological
and medical importance of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneetha Palasuberniam
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Alomran N, Alsolaiss J, Albulescu LO, Crittenden E, Harrison RA, Ainsworth S, Casewell NR. Pathology-specific experimental antivenoms for haemotoxic snakebite: The impact of immunogen diversity on the in vitro cross-reactivity and in vivo neutralisation of geographically diverse snake venoms. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009659. [PMID: 34407084 PMCID: PMC8423360 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that causes high global rates of mortality and morbidity. Although snakebite can cause a variety of pathologies in victims, haemotoxic effects are particularly common and are typically characterised by haemorrhage and/or venom-induced consumption coagulopathy. Antivenoms are the mainstay therapeutic for treating the toxic effects of snakebite, but despite saving thousands of lives annually, these therapies are associated with limited cross-snake species efficacy due to venom variation, which ultimately restricts their therapeutic utility to particular geographical regions. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS In this study we explored the feasibility of generating globally effective pathology-specific antivenoms to counteract the haemotoxic signs of snakebite envenoming. Two different immunogen mixtures, consisting of seven and twelve haemotoxic venoms sourced from geographically diverse and/or medically important snakes, were used to raise ovine polyclonal antibodies, prior to characterisation of their immunological binding characteristics and in vitro neutralisation profiles against each of the venoms. Despite variability of the immunogen mixtures, both experimental antivenoms exhibited broadly comparable in vitro venom binding and neutralisation profiles against the individual venom immunogens in immunological and functional assays. However, in vivo assessments using a murine preclinical model of antivenom efficacy revealed substantial differences in venom neutralisation. The experimental antivenom generated from the seven venom immunogen mixture outperformed the comparator, by providing protective effects against venom lethality caused by seven of the eight geographically diverse venoms tested, including three distinct venoms that were not used as immunogens to generate this antivenom. These findings suggest that a core set of venom immunogens may be sufficient to stimulate antibodies capable of broadly neutralising a geographically diverse array of haemotoxic snake venoms, and that adding additional venom immunogens may impact negatively on the dose efficacy of the resulting antivenom. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Although selection of appropriate immunogens that encapsulate venom toxin diversity without diluting antivenom potency remains challenging and further optimisation is required, the findings from this pilot study suggest that the generation of pathology-specific antivenoms with global utility is likely to feasible, thereby highlighting their promise as future modular treatments for the world's tropical snakebite victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nessrin Alomran
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jaffer Alsolaiss
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Edouard Crittenden
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A. Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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21
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Ratanabanangkoon K. A Quest for a Universal Plasma-Derived Antivenom Against All Elapid Neurotoxic Snake Venoms. Front Immunol 2021; 12:668328. [PMID: 33968072 PMCID: PMC8102826 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.668328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This review describes the research aimed at the development of universal antivenom against elapid neurotoxic snake venoms. The antivenoms produced in Thailand in the 1980s were of low potency, especially against the elapid venoms. This was thought to be due to the low immunogenicity of the α-neurotoxins, which are the most lethal toxins in these venoms. Comparisons of various α-neurotoxin conjugates and polymers, and also different immunological adjuvants, showed that the adjuvant used is the major determinant in the antibody response in horses. The potent Freund's adjuvant was not used due to its severe local side-effect in horses. Therefore, a novel immunization protocol termed 'low dose, low volume multi-site' was developed for use in horses. This immunization protocol has led to the production of highly potent monospecific antivenoms against several elapid and viperid venoms, and two potent polyspecific antivenoms, one against 4 neurotoxic and another against 3 hematotoxic venoms. The immunization protocol has also led to other improvements in antivenom production including: several fold increases in antiserum potency, a reduction in the time required to reach therapeutically useful antibody titers, a 90% reduction in the amount of venom used, and 100% of the horses responding to the immunization program. This development is partly responsible for significant decrease in the Thailand's annual snakebite death toll from a few dozens to mostly nil in recent years. Finally, a simple and novel immunization strategy, using a 'diverse toxin repertoire' composed of numerous elapid toxin fractions as immunogen, was proposed and tested. This immunization procedure has resulted in the successful production of a widely paraspecific antiserum against at least 36 neurotoxic venoms of 28 species encompassing 10 genera and from 20 countries on four continents, and possibly against all elapid venoms with α-neurotoxins as the lethal toxins. These results indicate that, with optimizations of the composition of the 'diverse toxin repertoire', the immunization scheme and antibody fractionation to increase the antivenom neutralizing potency, an effective universal antivenom against the neurotoxic elapid snakes of the world can be produced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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22
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Unusual quaternary structure of a homodimeric synergistic-type toxin from mamba snake venom defines its molecular evolution. Biochem J 2021; 477:3951-3962. [PMID: 33000863 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are complex mixtures of enzymes and nonenzymatic proteins that have evolved to immobilize and kill prey animals or deter predators. Among them, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) belong to the largest superfamily of nonenzymatic proteins. They share a common structure of three β-stranded loops extending like fingers from a central core containing all four conserved disulfide bonds. Most 3FTxs are monomers and through subtle changes in their amino acid sequences, they interact with different receptors, ion channels and enzymes to exhibit a wide variety of biological effects. The 3FTxs have further expanded their pharmacological space through covalent or noncovalent dimerization. Synergistic-type toxins (SynTxs) isolated from the deadly mamba venoms, although nontoxic, have been known to enhance the toxicity of other venom proteins. However, the details of three-dimensional structure and molecular mechanism of activity of this unusual class of 3FTxs are unclear. We determined the first three-dimensional structure of a SynTx isolated from Dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni (Jameson's mamba) venom. The SynTx forms a unique homodimer that is held together by an interchain disulfide bond. The dimeric interface is elaborate and encompasses loops II and III. In addition to the inter-subunit disulfide bond, the hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions between the monomers contribute to the dimer formation. Besides, two sulfate ions that mediate interactions between the monomers. This unique quaternary structure is evolved through noncovalent homodimers such as κ-bungarotoxins. This novel dimerization further enhances the diversity in structure and function of 3FTxs.
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23
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Current research into snake antivenoms, their mechanisms of action and applications. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 48:537-546. [PMID: 32196542 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite is a major public health issue in the rural tropics. Antivenom is the only specific treatment currently available. We review the history, mechanism of action and current developments in snake antivenoms. In the late nineteenth century, snake antivenoms were first developed by raising hyperimmune serum in animals, such as horses, against snake venoms. Hyperimmune serum was then purified to produce whole immunoglobulin G (IgG) antivenoms. IgG was then fractionated to produce F(ab) and F(ab')2 antivenoms to reduce adverse reactions and increase efficacy. Current commercial antivenoms are polyclonal mixtures of antibodies or their fractions raised against all toxin antigens in a venom(s), irrespective of clinical importance. Over the last few decades there have been small incremental improvements in antivenoms, to make them safer and more effective. A number of recent developments in biotechnology and toxinology have contributed to this. Proteomics and transcriptomics have been applied to venom toxin composition (venomics), improving our understanding of medically important toxins. In addition, it has become possible to identify toxins that contain epitopes recognized by antivenom molecules (antivenomics). Integration of the toxinological profile of a venom and its composition to identify medically relevant toxins improved this. Furthermore, camelid, humanized and fully human monoclonal antibodies and their fractions, as well as enzyme inhibitors have been experimentally developed against venom toxins. Translation of such technology into commercial antivenoms requires overcoming the high costs, limited knowledge of venom and antivenom pharmacology, and lack of reliable animal models. Addressing such should be the focus of antivenom research.
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24
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Kazandjian TD, Petras D, Robinson SD, van Thiel J, Greene HW, Arbuckle K, Barlow A, Carter DA, Wouters RM, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Arias AS, Albulescu LO, Plettenberg Laing A, Hall C, Heap A, Penrhyn-Lowe S, McCabe CV, Ainsworth S, da Silva RR, Dorrestein PC, Richardson MK, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ, Harrison RA, Vetter I, Undheim EAB, Wüster W, Casewell NR. Convergent evolution of pain-inducing defensive venom components in spitting cobras. Science 2021; 371:386-390. [PMID: 33479150 PMCID: PMC7610493 DOI: 10.1126/science.abb9303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Convergent evolution provides insights into the selective drivers underlying evolutionary change. Snake venoms, with a direct genetic basis and clearly defined functional phenotype, provide a model system for exploring the repeated evolution of adaptations. While snakes use venom primarily for predation, and venom composition often reflects diet specificity, three lineages of cobras have independently evolved the ability to spit venom at adversaries. Using gene, protein, and functional analyses, we show that the three spitting lineages possess venoms characterized by an up-regulation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxins, which potentiate the action of preexisting venom cytotoxins to activate mammalian sensory neurons and cause enhanced pain. These repeated independent changes provide a fascinating example of convergent evolution across multiple phenotypic levels driven by selection for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - D Petras
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - S D Robinson
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - J van Thiel
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - H W Greene
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - K Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - A Barlow
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - D A Carter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - R M Wouters
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - G Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - S C Wagstaff
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Research Computing Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A S Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - L-O Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A Plettenberg Laing
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C Hall
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - A Heap
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - S Penrhyn-Lowe
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C V McCabe
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1RL, UK
| | - S Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - R R da Silva
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Molecular Sciences Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - P C Dorrestein
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - M K Richardson
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - J M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - J J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - R A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - I Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - E A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - W Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - N R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK.
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25
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Boda F, Banfai K, Garai K, Kovacs B, Almasi A, Scheffer D, Sinkler RL, Csonka R, Czompoly T, Kvell K. Effect of Bitis gabonica and Dendroaspis angusticeps snake venoms on apoptosis-related genes in human thymic epithelial cells. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20200057. [PMID: 33402885 PMCID: PMC7745260 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2020-0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Certain environmental toxins permanently damage the thymic epithelium, accelerate immune senescence and trigger secondary immune pathologies. However, the exact underlying cellular mechanisms and pathways of permanent immune intoxication remain unknown. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate gene expressional changes of apoptosis-related cellular pathways in human thymic epithelial cells following exposure to snake venom from Bitis gabonica and Dendroaspis angusticeps. Methods: Snake venoms were characterized by analytical methods including reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, then applied on human thymic epithelial cells (1889c) for 24 h at 10 μg/mL (as used in previous TaqMan Array study). Gene expressional changes restricted to apoptosis were assayed by TaqMan Array (Human Apoptosis Plate). Results: The most prominent gene expressional changes were shown by CASP5 (≈ 2.5 million-fold, confirmed by dedicated quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and CARD9 (0.016-fold) for B. gabonica, and BIRC7 (6.46-fold) and CASP1 (0.30-fold) for D. angusticeps. Conclusion: The observed apoptotic environment suggests that pyroptosis may be the dominant pathway through which B. gabonica and D. angusticeps snake venoms trigger thymic epithelial apoptosis following envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisc Boda
- Department F1, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Krisztina Banfai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Kitti Garai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Bela Kovacs
- Department F1, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Targu Mures, Targu Mures, Romania
| | - Attila Almasi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Dalma Scheffer
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Soft Flow Ltd., Pecs, Hungary
| | - Reka Lambertne Sinkler
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Soft Flow Ltd., Pecs, Hungary
| | - Robert Csonka
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Soft Flow Ltd., Pecs, Hungary
| | - Tamas Czompoly
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Soft Flow Ltd., Pecs, Hungary
| | - Krisztian Kvell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.,Food Biotechnology Research Group, Szentagothai Research Center, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
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26
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Diniz-Sousa R, Moraes JDN, Rodrigues-da-Silva TM, Oliveira CS, Caldeira CADS. A brief review on the natural history, venomics and the medical importance of bushmaster ( Lachesis) pit viper snakes. Toxicon X 2020; 7:100053. [PMID: 32793880 PMCID: PMC7408722 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2020.100053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakes of the genus Lachesis, commonly known as bushmasters, are the largest venomous snakes in the Americas. Because these snakes have their habitats in areas of remote forests they are difficult to find, and consequently there are few studies of Lachesis taxa in their natural ecosystems. Bushmasters are distributed in tropical forest areas of South and Central America. In Brazil they can be found in the Amazon Rainforest and the Atlantic Forest. Despite the low incidence of cases, laquetic envenoming causes severe permanent sequelae due to the high amount of inoculated venom. These accidents are characterized by local pain, hemorrhage and myonecrosis that can be confused with bothropic envenomings. However, victims of Lachesis bites develop symptoms characteristic of Lachesis envenoming, known as vagal syndrome. An important message of this bibliographic synthesis exercise is that, despite having the proteomic profiles of all the taxa of the genus available, very few structure-function correlation studies have been carried out. Therefore the motivation for this review was to fill a gap in the literature on the genus Lachesis, about which there is no recent review. Here we discuss data scattered in a number of original articles published in specialized journals, spanning the evolutionary history and extant phylogeographic distribution of the bushmasters, their venom composition and diet, as well as the pathophysiology of their bites to humans and the biological activities and possible biotechnological applicability of their venom toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela Diniz-Sousa
- Center for the Study of Biomolecules Applied to Health (CEBio), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Experimental Biology (PGBIOEXP), Federal University of Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
- Sao Lucas University Center (UniSL), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Jeane do N. Moraes
- Center for the Study of Biomolecules Applied to Health (CEBio), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Experimental Biology (PGBIOEXP), Federal University of Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | | | - Cláudia S. Oliveira
- Center for the Study of Biomolecules Applied to Health (CEBio), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Experimental Biology (PGBIOEXP), Federal University of Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Cleópatra A. da S. Caldeira
- Center for the Study of Biomolecules Applied to Health (CEBio), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Experimental Biology (PGBIOEXP), Federal University of Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
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27
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Pruksaphon K, Tan KY, Tan CH, Simsiriwong P, Gutiérrez JM, Ratanabanangkoon K. An in vitro α-neurotoxin-nAChR binding assay correlates with lethality and in vivo neutralization of a large number of elapid neurotoxic snake venoms from four continents. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008581. [PMID: 32857757 PMCID: PMC7535858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop an in vitro assay for use in place of in vivo assays of snake venom lethality and antivenom neutralizing potency. A novel in vitro assay has been developed based on the binding of post-synaptically acting α-neurotoxins to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), and the ability of antivenoms to prevent this binding. The assay gave high correlation in previous studies with the in vivo murine lethality tests (Median Lethal Dose, LD50), and the neutralization of lethality assays (Median Effective Dose, ED50) by antisera against Naja kaouthia, Naja naja and Bungarus candidus venoms. Here we show that, for the neurotoxic venoms of 20 elapid snake species from eight genera and four continents, the in vitro median inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) for α-neurotoxin binding to purified nAChR correlated well with the in vivo LD50s of the venoms (R2 = 0.8526, p < 0.001). Furthermore, using this assay, the in vitro ED50s of a horse pan-specific antiserum against these venoms correlated significantly with the corresponding in vivo murine ED50s, with R2 = 0.6896 (p < 0.01). In the case of four elapid venoms devoid or having a very low concentration of α-neurotoxins, no inhibition of nAChR binding was observed. Within the philosophy of 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement) in animal testing, the in vitro α-neurotoxin-nAChR binding assay can effectively substitute the mouse lethality test for toxicity and antivenom potency evaluation for neurotoxic venoms in which α-neurotoxins predominate. This will greatly reduce the number of mice used in toxicological research and antivenom production laboratories. The simpler, faster, cheaper and less variable in vitro assay should also expedite the development of pan-specific antivenoms against various medically important snakes in many parts of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritsada Pruksaphon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | | | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Laboratory of Immunology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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28
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Calvete JJ, Bonilla F, Granados-Martínez S, Sanz L, Lomonte B, Sasa M. Venomics of the Duvernoy's gland secretion of the false coral snake Rhinobothryum bovallii (Andersson, 1916) and assessment of venom lethality towards synapsid and diapsid animal models. J Proteomics 2020; 225:103882. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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29
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Ainsworth S, Menzies SK, Casewell NR, Harrison RA. An analysis of preclinical efficacy testing of antivenoms for sub-Saharan Africa: Inadequate independent scrutiny and poor-quality reporting are barriers to improving snakebite treatment and management. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008579. [PMID: 32817682 PMCID: PMC7462309 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization's strategy to halve snakebite mortality and morbidity by 2030 includes an emphasis on a risk-benefit process assessing the preclinical efficacy of antivenoms manufactured for sub-Saharan Africa. To assist this process, we systematically collected, standardised and analysed all publicly available data on the preclinical efficacy of antivenoms designed for sub-Saharan Africa. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using a systematic search of publication databases, we focused on publicly available preclinical reports of the efficacy of 16 antivenom products available in sub Saharan Africa. Publications since 1999 reporting the industry standard intravenous pre-incubation method of murine in vivo neutralisation of venom lethality (median effective dose [ED50]) were included. Eighteen publications met the criteria. To permit comparison of the several different reported ED50 values, it was necessary to standardise these to microlitre of antivenom resulting in 50% survival of mice challenged per milligram of venom (μl/mg). We were unable to identify publicly available preclinical data on four antivenoms, whilst data for six polyspecific antivenoms were restricted to a small number of venoms. Only four antivenoms were tested against a wide range of venoms. Examination of these studies for the reporting of key metrics required for interpreting antivenom ED50s were highly variable, as evidenced by eight different units being used for the described ED50 values. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE There is a disturbing lack of (i) preclinical efficacy testing of antivenom for sub Saharan Africa, (ii) publicly available reports and (iii) independent scrutiny of this medically important data. Where reports do exist, the methods and metrics used are highly variable. This prevents comprehensive meta-analysis of antivenom preclinical efficacy, and severely reduces the utility of antivenom ED50 results in the decision making of physicians treating patients and of national and international health agencies. Here, we propose the use of a standardised result reporting checklist to resolve this issue. Implementation of these straightforward steps will deliver uniform evaluation of products across laboratories, facilitate meta-analyses, and contribute vital information for designing the clinical trials needed to achieve the WHO target of halving snakebite morbidity and mortality by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Stefanie K. Menzies
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A. Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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30
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Ratanabanangkoon K, Tan KY, Pruksaphon K, Klinpayom C, Gutiérrez JM, Quraishi NH, Tan CH. A pan-specific antiserum produced by a novel immunization strategy shows a high spectrum of neutralization against neurotoxic snake venoms. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11261. [PMID: 32647261 PMCID: PMC7347863 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66657-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenomation is a neglected tropical disease of high mortality and morbidity largely due to insufficient supply of effective and affordable antivenoms. Snake antivenoms are mostly effective against the venoms used in their production. It is thus crucial that effective and affordable antivenom(s) with wide para-specificity, capable of neutralizing the venoms of a large number of snakes, be produced. Here we studied the pan-specific antiserum prepared previously by a novel immunization strategy involving the exposure of horses to a ‘diverse toxin repertoire’ consisting of 12 neurotoxic Asian snake toxin fractions/ venoms from six species. This antiserum was previously shown to exhibit wide para-specificity by neutralizing 11 homologous and 16 heterologous venoms from Asia and Africa. We now show that the antiserum can neutralize 9 out of 10 additional neurotoxic venoms. Altogether, 36 snake venoms belonging to 10 genera from 4 continents were neutralized by the antiserum. Toxin profiles previously generated using proteomic techniques of these 36 venoms identified α-neurotoxins, β-neurotoxins, and cytotoxins as predominant toxins presumably neutralized by the antiserum. The bases for the wide para-specificity of the antiserum are discussed. These findings indicate that it is feasible to generate antivenoms of wide para-specificity against elapid neurotoxic venoms from different regions in the world and raises the possibility of a universal neurotoxic antivenom. This should reduce the mortality resulting from neurotoxic snakebite envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavi Ratanabanangkoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand. .,Laboratory of Immunology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand.
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Kritsada Pruksaphon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200, Thailand
| | - Chaiya Klinpayom
- Veterinary Hospital, The Veterinary and Remount Department, The Royal Thai Army, Nakorn Pathom, 73000, Thailand
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Naeem H Quraishi
- Anti Snake Venom/Anti Rabies Serology Laboratory, People's University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah, Pakistan
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
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31
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Krause KE, Jenkins TP, Skaarup C, Engmark M, Casewell NR, Ainsworth S, Lomonte B, Fernández J, Gutiérrez JM, Lund O, Laustsen AH. An interactive database for the investigation of high-density peptide microarray guided interaction patterns and antivenom cross-reactivity. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008366. [PMID: 32579606 PMCID: PMC7313730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a major neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people every year. The only effective treatment against snakebite envenoming consists of unspecified cocktails of polyclonal antibodies purified from the plasma of immunized production animals. Currently, little data exists on the molecular interactions between venom-toxin epitopes and antivenom-antibody paratopes. To address this issue, high-density peptide microarray (hdpm) technology has recently been adapted to the field of toxinology. However, analysis of such valuable datasets requires expert understanding and, thus, complicates its broad application within the field. In the present study, we developed a user-friendly, and high-throughput web application named "Snake Toxin and Antivenom Binding Profiles" (STAB Profiles), to allow straight-forward analysis of hdpm datasets. To test our tool and evaluate its performance with a large dataset, we conducted hdpm assays using all African snake toxin protein sequences available in the UniProt database at the time of study design, together with eight commercial antivenoms in clinical use in Africa, thus representing the largest venom-antivenom dataset to date. Furthermore, we introduced a novel method for evaluating raw signals from a peptide microarray experiment and a data normalization protocol enabling intra-microarray and even inter-microarray chip comparisons. Finally, these data, alongside all the data from previous similar studies by Engmark et al., were preprocessed according to our newly developed protocol and made publicly available for download through the STAB Profiles web application (http://tropicalpharmacology.com/tools/stab-profiles/). With these data and our tool, we were able to gain key insights into toxin-antivenom interactions and were able to differentiate the ability of different antivenoms to interact with certain toxins of interest. The data, as well as the web application, we present in this article should be of significant value to the venom-antivenom research community. Knowledge gained from our current and future analyses of this dataset carry the potential to guide the improvement and optimization of current antivenoms for maximum patient benefit, as well as aid the development of next-generation antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamille E. Krause
- Department of Bio and Health Informatics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Timothy P. Jenkins
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Carina Skaarup
- Department of Bio and Health Informatics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mikael Engmark
- Department of Bio and Health Informatics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Julián Fernández
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José M. Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Ole Lund
- Department of Bio and Health Informatics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H. Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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32
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Pucca MB, Ahmadi S, Cerni FA, Ledsgaard L, Sørensen CV, McGeoghan FTS, Stewart T, Schoof E, Lomonte B, Auf dem Keller U, Arantes EC, Çalışkan F, Laustsen AH. Unity Makes Strength: Exploring Intraspecies and Interspecies Toxin Synergism between Phospholipases A 2 and Cytotoxins. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:611. [PMID: 32457615 PMCID: PMC7221120 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxin synergism is a complex biochemical phenomenon, where different animal venom proteins interact either directly or indirectly to potentiate toxicity to a level that is above the sum of the toxicities of the individual toxins. This provides the animals possessing venoms with synergistically enhanced toxicity with a metabolic advantage, since less venom is needed to inflict potent toxic effects in prey and predators. Among the toxins that are known for interacting synergistically are cytotoxins from snake venoms, phospholipases A2 from snake and bee venoms, and melittin from bee venom. These toxins may derive a synergistically enhanced toxicity via formation of toxin complexes by hetero-oligomerization. Using a human keratinocyte assay mimicking human epidermis in vitro, we demonstrate and quantify the level of synergistically enhanced toxicity for 12 cytotoxin/melittin-PLA2 combinations using toxins from elapids, vipers, and bees. Moreover, by utilizing an interaction-based assay and by including a wealth of information obtained via a thorough literature review, we speculate and propose a mechanistic model for how toxin synergism in relation to cytotoxicity may be mediated by cytotoxin/melittin and PLA2 complex formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela B Pucca
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil.,Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.,Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
| | - Felipe A Cerni
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Line Ledsgaard
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Christoffer V Sørensen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Farrell T S McGeoghan
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Trenton Stewart
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.,Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Erwin Schoof
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Facultad de Microbiología, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Ulrich Auf dem Keller
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Eliane C Arantes
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Figen Çalışkan
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Art, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Bocian A, Sławek S, Jaromin M, Hus KK, Buczkowicz J, Łysiak D, Petrílla V, Petrillova M, Legáth J. Comparison of Methods for Measuring Protein Concentration in Venom Samples. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E448. [PMID: 32182656 PMCID: PMC7142616 DOI: 10.3390/ani10030448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom is an extremely interesting natural mixture of proteins and peptides, characterized by both high diversity and high pharmacological potential. Much attention has been paid to the study of venom composition of different species and also detailed analysis of the properties of individual components. Since proteins and peptides are the active ingredients in venom, rapidly developing proteomic techniques are used to analyze them. During such analyses, one of the routine operations is to measure the protein concentration in the sample. The aim of this study was to compare five methods used to measure protein content in venoms of two snake species: the Viperids representative, Agkistrodon contortrix, and the Elapids representative, Naja ashei. The study showed that for A. contortrix venom, the concentration of venom protein measured by four methods is very similar and only the NanoDrop method clearly stands out from the rest. However, in the case of N. ashei venom, each technique yields significantly different results. We hope that this report will help to draw attention to the problem of measuring protein concentration, especially in such a complex mixture as animal venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Bocian
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Sonja Sławek
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Marcin Jaromin
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Konrad K. Hus
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Justyna Buczkowicz
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Dawid Łysiak
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
| | - Vladimir Petrílla
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Physiology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenského 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia;
- Zoological Department, Zoological Garden Košice, Široká 31, 040 06 Košice-Kavečany, Slovakia
| | - Monika Petrillova
- Department of General Education Subjects, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenského 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia;
| | - Jaroslav Legáth
- Faculty of Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; (S.S.); (M.J.); (K.K.H.); (J.B.); (D.Ł.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenského 73, 041 81 Kosice, Slovakia
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34
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Bickler PE. Amplification of Snake Venom Toxicity by Endogenous Signaling Pathways. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E68. [PMID: 31979014 PMCID: PMC7076764 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The active components of snake venoms encompass a complex and variable mixture of proteins that produce a diverse, but largely stereotypical, range of pharmacologic effects and toxicities. Venom protein diversity and host susceptibilities determine the relative contributions of five main pathologies: neuromuscular dysfunction, inflammation, coagulopathy, cell/organ injury, and disruption of homeostatic mechanisms of normal physiology. In this review, we describe how snakebite is not only a condition mediated directly by venom, but by the amplification of signals dysregulating inflammation, coagulation, neurotransmission, and cell survival. Although venom proteins are diverse, the majority of important pathologic events following envenoming follow from a small group of enzyme-like activities and the actions of small toxic peptides. This review focuses on two of the most important enzymatic activities: snake venom phospholipases (svPLA2) and snake venom metalloproteases (svMP). These two enzyme classes are adept at enabling venom to recruit homologous endogenous signaling systems with sufficient magnitude and duration to produce and amplify cell injury beyond what would be expected from the direct impact of a whole venom dose. This magnification produces many of the most acutely important consequences of envenoming as well as chronic sequelae. Snake venom PLA2s and MPs enzymes recruit prey analogs of similar activity. The transduction mechanisms that recruit endogenous responses include arachidonic acid, intracellular calcium, cytokines, bioactive peptides, and possibly dimerization of venom and prey protein homologs. Despite years of investigation, the precise mechanism of svPLA2-induced neuromuscular paralysis remains incomplete. Based on recent studies, paralysis results from a self-amplifying cycle of endogenous PLA2 activation, arachidonic acid, increases in intracellular Ca2+ and nicotinic receptor deactivation. When prolonged, synaptic suppression supports the degeneration of the synapse. Interaction between endothelium-damaging MPs, sPLA2s and hyaluronidases enhance venom spread, accentuating venom-induced neurotoxicity, inflammation, coagulopathy and tissue injury. Improving snakebite treatment requires new tools to understand direct and indirect effects of envenoming. Homologous PLA2 and MP activities in both venoms and prey/snakebite victim provide molecular targets for non-antibody, small molecule agents for dissecting mechanisms of venom toxicity. Importantly, these tools enable the separation of venom-specific and prey-specific pathological responses to venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip E. Bickler
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Care, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0542, USA;
- California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
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35
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Dobson JS, Zdenek CN, Hay C, Violette A, Fourmy R, Cochran C, Fry BG. Varanid Lizard Venoms Disrupt the Clotting Ability of Human Fibrinogen through Destructive Cleavage. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E255. [PMID: 31067768 PMCID: PMC6563220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The functional activities of Anguimorpha lizard venoms have received less attention compared to serpent lineages. Bite victims of varanid lizards often report persistent bleeding exceeding that expected for the mechanical damage of the bite. Research to date has identified the blockage of platelet aggregation as one bleeding-inducing activity, and destructive cleavage of fibrinogen as another. However, the ability of the venoms to prevent clot formation has not been directly investigated. Using a thromboelastograph (TEG5000), clot strength was measured after incubating human fibrinogen with Heloderma and Varanus lizard venoms. Clot strengths were found to be highly variable, with the most potent effects produced by incubation with Varanus venoms from the Odatria and Euprepriosaurus clades. The most fibrinogenolytically active venoms belonged to arboreal species and therefore prey escape potential is likely a strong evolutionary selection pressure. The results are also consistent with reports of profusive bleeding from bites from other notably fibrinogenolytic species, such as V. giganteus. Our results provide evidence in favour of the predatory role of venom in varanid lizards, thus shedding light on the evolution of venom in reptiles and revealing potential new sources of bioactive molecules useful as lead compounds in drug design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Aude Violette
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium.
| | - Rudy Fourmy
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911 Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium.
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Munawar A, Ali SA, Akrem A, Betzel C. Snake Venom Peptides: Tools of Biodiscovery. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110474. [PMID: 30441876 PMCID: PMC6266942 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Nature endowed snakes with a lethal secretion known as venom, which has been fine-tuned over millions of years of evolution. Snakes utilize venom to subdue their prey and to survive in their natural habitat. Venom is known to be a very poisonous mixture, consisting of a variety of molecules, such as carbohydrates, nucleosides, amino acids, lipids, proteins and peptides. Proteins and peptides are the major constituents of the dry weight of snake venoms and are of main interest for scientific investigations as well as for various pharmacological applications. Snake venoms contain enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins and peptides, which are grouped into different families based on their structure and function. Members of a single family display significant similarities in their primary, secondary and tertiary structures, but in many cases have distinct pharmacological functions and different bioactivities. The functional specificity of peptides belonging to the same family can be attributed to subtle variations in their amino acid sequences. Currently, complementary tools and techniques are utilized to isolate and characterize the peptides, and study their potential applications as molecular probes, and possible templates for drug discovery and design investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisha Munawar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan.
| | - Syed Abid Ali
- H.E. J. Research Institute of Chemistry, (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Ahmed Akrem
- Botany Division, Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan.
| | - Christian Betzel
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
- Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, DESY, Build. 22a, Notkestr. 85, 22603 Hamburg, Germany.
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37
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Bermúdez-Méndez E, Fuglsang-Madsen A, Føns S, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Laustsen AH. Innovative Immunization Strategies for Antivenom Development. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110452. [PMID: 30400220 PMCID: PMC6265855 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakes, scorpions, and spiders are venomous animals that pose a threat to human health, and severe envenomings from the bites or stings of these animals must be treated with antivenom. Current antivenoms are based on plasma-derived immunoglobulins or immunoglobulin fragments from hyper-immunized animals. Although these medicines have been life-saving for more than 120 years, opportunities to improve envenoming therapy exist. In the later decades, new biotechnological tools have been applied with the aim of improving the efficacy, safety, and affordability of antivenoms. Within the avenues explored, novel immunization strategies using synthetic peptide epitopes, recombinant toxins (or toxoids), or DNA strings as immunogens have demonstrated potential for generating antivenoms with high therapeutic antibody titers and broad neutralizing capacity. Furthermore, these approaches circumvent the need for venom in the production process of antivenoms, thereby limiting some of the complications associated with animal captivity and venom collection. Finally, an important benefit of innovative immunization approaches is that they are often compatible with existing antivenom manufacturing setups. In this review, we compile all reported studies examining venom-independent innovative immunization strategies for antivenom development. In addition, a brief description of toxin families of medical relevance found in snake, scorpion, and spider venoms is presented, as well as how biochemical, bioinformatic, and omics tools could aid the development of next-generation antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Albert Fuglsang-Madsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 København N, Denmark.
| | - Sofie Føns
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Andreas Hougaard Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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38
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Defining the pathogenic threat of envenoming by South African shield-nosed and coral snakes (genus Aspidelaps), and revealing the likely efficacy of available antivenom. J Proteomics 2018; 198:186-198. [PMID: 30290233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
While envenoming by the southern African shield-nosed or coral snakes (genus Aspidelaps) has caused fatalities, bites are uncommon. Consequently, this venom is not used in the mixture of snake venoms used to immunise horses for the manufacture of regional SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) polyvalent antivenom. Aspidelaps species are even excluded from the manufacturer's list of venomous snakes that can be treated by this highly effective product. This leaves clinicians, albeit rarely, in a therapeutic vacuum when treating envenoming by these snakes. This is a significantly understudied small group of nocturnal snakes and little is known about their venom compositions and toxicities. Using a murine preclinical model, this study determined that the paralysing toxicity of venoms from Aspidelaps scutatus intermedius, A. lubricus cowlesi and A. l. lubricus approached that of venoms from highly neurotoxic African cobras and mambas. This finding was consistent with the cross-genus dominance of venom three-finger toxins, including numerous isoforms which showed extensive interspecific variation. Our comprehensive analysis of venom proteomes showed that the three Aspidelaps species possess highly similar venom proteomic compositions. We also revealed that the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom cross-reacted extensively in vitro with venom proteins of the three Aspidelaps. Importantly, this cross-genus venom-IgG binding translated to preclinical (in a murine model) neutralisation of A. s. intermedius venom-induced lethality by the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, at doses comparable with those that neutralise venom from the cape cobra (Naja nivea), which the antivenom is directed against. Our results suggest a wider than anticipated clinical utility of the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, and here we seek to inform southern African clinicians that this readily available antivenom is likely to prove effective for victims of Aspidelaps envenoming. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Coral and shield-nosed snakes (genus Aspidelaps) comprise two species and several subspecies of potentially medically important venomous snakes distributed in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. Documented human fatalities, although rare, have occurred from both A. lubricus and A. scutatus. However, their venom proteomes and the pathological effects of envenomings by this understudied group of nocturnal snakes remain uncharacterised. Furthermore, no commercial antivenom is made using venom from species of the genus Aspidelaps. To fill this gap, we have conducted a transcriptomics-guided comparative proteomics analysis of the venoms of the intermediate shield-nose snake (A. s. intermedius), southern coral snake (A. l. lubricus), and Cowle's shield snake (A. l. cowlesi); investigated the mechanism of action underpinning lethality by A. s. intermedius in the murine model; and assessed the in vitro immunoreactivity of the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom towards the venom toxins of A. l. lubricus and A. l. cowlesi, and the in vivo capability of this antivenom at neutralising the lethal effect of A. s. intermedius venom. Our data revealed a high degree of conservation of the global composition of the three Aspidelaps venom proteomes, all characterised by the overwhelming predominance of neurotoxic 3FTxs, which induced classical signs of systemic neurotoxicity in mice. The SAIMR polyvalent antivenom extensively binds to Aspidelaps venom toxins and neutralised, with a potency of 0.235 mg venom/mL antivenom, the lethal effect of A. s. intermedius venom. Our data suggest that the SAIMR antivenom could be a useful therapeutic tool for treating human envenomings by Aspidelaps species.
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Guiding recombinant antivenom development by omics technologies. N Biotechnol 2018; 45:19-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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40
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Antibody Cross-Reactivity in Antivenom Research. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10100393. [PMID: 30261694 PMCID: PMC6215175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10100393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Antivenom cross-reactivity has been investigated for decades to determine which antivenoms can be used to treat snakebite envenomings from different snake species. Traditionally, the methods used for analyzing cross-reactivity have been immunodiffusion, immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), enzymatic assays, and in vivo neutralization studies. In recent years, new methods for determination of cross-reactivity have emerged, including surface plasmon resonance, antivenomics, and high-density peptide microarray technology. Antivenomics involves a top-down assessment of the toxin-binding capacities of antivenoms, whereas high-density peptide microarray technology may be harnessed to provide in-depth knowledge on which toxin epitopes are recognized by antivenoms. This review provides an overview of both the classical and new methods used to investigate antivenom cross-reactivity, the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and examples of studies using the methods. A special focus is given to antivenomics and high-density peptide microarray technology as these high-throughput methods have recently been introduced in this field and may enable more detailed assessments of antivenom cross-reactivity.
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Villar-Briones A, Aird SD. Organic and Peptidyl Constituents of Snake Venoms: The Picture Is Vastly More Complex Than We Imagined. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E392. [PMID: 30261630 PMCID: PMC6215107 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10100392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Small metabolites and peptides in 17 snake venoms (Elapidae, Viperinae, and Crotalinae), were quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Each venom contains >900 metabolites and peptides. Many small organic compounds are present at levels that are probably significant in prey envenomation, given that their known pharmacologies are consistent with snake envenomation strategies. Metabolites included purine nucleosides and their bases, neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, guanidino compounds, carboxylic acids, amines, mono- and disaccharides, and amino acids. Peptides of 2⁻15 amino acids are also present in significant quantities, particularly in crotaline and viperine venoms. Some constituents are specific to individual taxa, while others are broadly distributed. Some of the latter appear to support high anabolic activity in the gland, rather than having toxic functions. Overall, the most abundant organic metabolite was citric acid, owing to its predominance in viperine and crotaline venoms, where it chelates divalent cations to prevent venom degradation by venom metalloproteases and damage to glandular tissue by phospholipases. However, in terms of their concentrations in individual venoms, adenosine, adenine, were most abundant, owing to their high titers in Dendroaspis polylepis venom, although hypoxanthine, guanosine, inosine, and guanine all numbered among the 50 most abundant organic constituents. A purine not previously reported in venoms, ethyl adenosine carboxylate, was discovered in D. polylepis venom, where it probably contributes to the profound hypotension caused by this venom. Acetylcholine was present in significant quantities only in this highly excitotoxic venom, while 4-guanidinobutyric acid and 5-guanidino-2-oxopentanoic acid were present in all venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Villar-Briones
- Division of Research Support, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Steven D Aird
- Division of Faculty Affairs and Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan.
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Calvete JJ. Snake venomics – from low-resolution toxin-pattern recognition to toxin-resolved venom proteomes with absolute quantification. Expert Rev Proteomics 2018; 15:555-568. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2018.1500904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
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Panda S, Kumari L. Anti-Ophidian Properties of Herbal Medicinal Plants: Could it be a Remedy for Snake Bite Envenomation? Curr Drug Discov Technol 2018; 16:319-329. [PMID: 30019647 DOI: 10.2174/1570163815666180718095655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Snake bite envenoming causes high rates of morbidity and mortality and is one of the serious health-related concerns all over the globe. Around 3200 species of snakes have been discovered till date. Amid these species, about 1300 species of snakes are venomous. On account of its severity, World Health Organization (WHO) recently included snakebite envenoming in the list of neglected tropical diseases. Immunotherapy has partially solved the issues related to snakebite envenomation. However, it is associated with numerous adverse effects, due to which alternative treatment strategies are required for the treatment of snakebite. Traditionally, a large repository of herbal medicinal plants is known to possess activity against snake venom. An exploration of the therapeutic benefits of these medicinal plants used for the treatment of snakebites reveals the presence of various potential phytochemicals. The aim of the present review is to provide an outline regarding poisonous snakes all over the world, various compositions of snake venom, adverse effects related to anti-snake venom and numerous medicinal plants used for the anti-ophidian activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhamay Panda
- Department of Pharmacy, Gupta College of Technological Sciences, Ashram More, Asansol-713301, India.,Indian Institute of Human and Social Sciences (IIHSS), Sitarampur, Asansol-713359, India
| | - Leena Kumari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032, India
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Calvete JJ, Rodríguez Y, Quesada-Bernat S, Pla D. Toxin-resolved antivenomics-guided assessment of the immunorecognition landscape of antivenoms. Toxicon 2018; 148:107-122. [PMID: 29704534 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming represents a major issue in rural areas of tropical and subtropical regions across sub-Saharan Africa, South to Southeast Asia, Latin America and Oceania. Antivenoms constitute the only scientifically validated therapy for snakebite envenomings, provided they are safe, effective, affordable, accessible and administered appropriately. However, the lack of financial incentives in a technology that has remained relatively unchanged for more than a century, has contributed to some manufacturers leaving the market and others downscaling production or increasing the prices, leading to a decline in the availability and accessibility for these life-saving antidotes to millions of rural poor most at risk from snakebites in low income countries. The shortage of antivenoms can be significantly alleviated by optimizing the use of current antivenoms (through the assessment of their specific and paraspecific efficacy against the different medically relevant homologous and heterologous snake venoms) and by generating novel polyspecific antivenoms exhibiting broad clinical spectrum and wide geographic distribution range. Research on venoms has been continuously enhanced by advances in technology. Particularly, the last decade has witnessed the development of omics strategies for unravelling the toxin composition of venoms ("venomics") and to assess the immunorecognition profile of antivenoms ("antivenomics"). Here, we review recent developments and reflect on near future innovations that promise to revolutionize the mutually enlightening relationship between evolutionary and translational venomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain.
| | - Yania Rodríguez
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Sarai Quesada-Bernat
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Davinia Pla
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Valencia, Spain.
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45
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Knudsen C, Laustsen AH. Recent Advances in Next Generation Snakebite Antivenoms. Trop Med Infect Dis 2018; 3:tropicalmed3020042. [PMID: 30274438 PMCID: PMC6073149 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed3020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
With the inclusion of snakebite envenoming on the World Health Organization’s list of Neglected Tropical Diseases, an incentive has been established to promote research and development effort in novel snakebite antivenom therapies. Various technological approaches are being pursued by different research groups, including the use of small molecule inhibitors against enzymatic toxins as well as peptide- and oligonucleotide-based aptamers and antibody-based biotherapeutics against both enzymatic and non-enzymatic toxins. In this article, the most recent advances in these fields are presented, and the advantages, disadvantages, and feasibility of using different toxin-neutralizing molecules are reviewed. Particular focus within small molecules is directed towards the inhibitors varespladib, batimastat, and marimastat, while in the field of antibody-based therapies, novel recombinant polyclonal plantivenom technology is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilie Knudsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark.
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark.
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Xiong S, Huang C. Synergistic strategies of predominant toxins in snake venoms. Toxicol Lett 2018; 287:142-154. [PMID: 29428543 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Synergism is a significant phenomenon present in snake venoms that may be an evolving strategy to potentiate toxicities. Synergism exists between different toxins or toxin complexes in various snake venoms, with phospholipaseA2s (PLA2s) (toxins or subunits) the main enablers. The predominant toxins, snake venom PLA2s, metalloproteases (SVMPs), serine proteases (SVSPs) and three-finger toxins (3FTxs), play essential roles in synergistic processes. The hypothetical mechanisms of synergistic effect can be generalized under the effects of amplification and chaperoning. The Toxicity Score is among the few quantitative methods to assess synergism. Selection of toxins involved in synergistically enhanced toxicity as the targets are important for development of novel antivenoms or inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwei Xiong
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Chunhong Huang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China.
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Pla D, Petras D, Saviola AJ, Modahl CM, Sanz L, Pérez A, Juárez E, Frietze S, Dorrestein PC, Mackessy SP, Calvete JJ. Transcriptomics-guided bottom-up and top-down venomics of neonate and adult specimens of the arboreal rear-fanged Brown Treesnake, Boiga irregularis, from Guam. J Proteomics 2017; 174:71-84. [PMID: 29292096 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Brown Treesnake (Boiga irregularis) is an arboreal, nocturnal, rear-fanged venomous snake native to northern and eastern regions of Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. It was inadvertently introduced onto the island of Guam during the late 1940's to early 1950's, and it has caused massive declines and extirpations of the native bird, lizard, and mammal populations. In the current study, we report the characterization of the venom proteome of an adult and a neonate B. irregularis specimens from Guam by a combination of venom gland transcriptomic and venomic analyses. Venom gland transcriptomic analysis of an adult individual identified toxins belonging to 18 protein families, with three-finger toxin isoforms being the most abundantly expressed transcripts, comprising 94% of all venom protein transcript reads. Transcripts for PIII-metalloproteinases, C-type lectins, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, acetylcholinesterases, natriuretic peptides, ficolins, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors, PLA2s, vascular endothelial growth factors, Kunitz-type protease inhibitors, cystatins, phospholipase Bs, cobra venom factors, waprins, SVMP inhibitors, matrix metalloproteinases, and hyaluronidases were also identified, albeit, at very low abundances ranging from 0.05% to 1.7% of the transcriptome. The venom proteomes of neonate and adult B. irregularis were also both overwhelmingly (78 and 84%, respectively) dominated by monomeric and dimeric 3FTxs, followed by moderately abundant (21% (N) and 13% (A)) CRISPs, low abundance (1% (N), 3% (A)) PIII-SVMPs, and very low abundance (<0.01%) PLA2 and SVMP inhibitors. The differences in relative toxin abundances identified between neonate and adult snakes likely correlates to shifts in prey preference between the two age classes, from nearly-exclusively lizards to lizards, birds and small mammals. Immunoaffinity antivenomics with experimentally designed rabbit anti-Brown Treesnake (anti-BTS) venom IgGs against homologous venom from adult snakes demonstrated that CRISPs, PIII-SVMPs, and 60-70% of 3FTxs were effectively immunocaptured. Western blot analysis showed that all venom proteins were recognized by anti-BTS IgGs, and cross-reactivity with other rear-fanged snake venoms was also observed. Incubation of anti-BTS venom IgGs with crude B. irregularis venom resulted in a significant decrease in proteolytic (SVMP) activity against azocasein. These results provide the first comparative venomic and anti-venomic analysis of neonate and adult B. irregularis from Guam, further highlighting evolutionary trends in venom composition among rear-fanged venomous snakes. SIGNIFICANCE PARAGRAPH The Brown Treesnake (Boiga irregularis) has caused extensive ecological and economic damage to the island of Guam where it has become a classic example of the negative impacts of invasive species. In the current study, we report the first combined transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of B. irregularis venom of Guam origin. The transcriptome of an adult snake contained toxin sequences belonging to 18 protein families, with three-finger toxin (3FTx) isoforms being the most abundant and representing 94% of all venom protein transcript reads. Our bottom-up and top-down venomic analyses confirmed that 3FTxs are the major components of B. irregularis venom, and a comparative analysis of neonate and adult venoms demonstrate a clear ontogenetic shift in toxin abundance, likely driven by dietary variation between the two age classes. Second-generation antivenomics and Western blot analysis using purified anti-Brown Treesnake rabbit serum IgGs (anti-BTS IgGs) showed strong immunoreactivity toward B. irregularis venom. Interestingly, our anti-BTS IgGs did not cross-react with 3FTxs found in several other rear-fanged snake venoms, or against 3FTxs in the venom of the elapid Ophiophagus hannah, indicating that epitopes in these 3FTx molecules are quite distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davinia Pla
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniel Petras
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain; School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Libia Sanz
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alicia Pérez
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Elena Juárez
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Seth Frietze
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639, USA.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain.
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A Review and Database of Snake Venom Proteomes. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9090290. [PMID: 28927001 PMCID: PMC5618223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the last decade combining transcriptomics with established proteomics methods have made possible rapid identification and quantification of protein families in snake venoms. Although over 100 studies have been published, the value of this information is increased when it is collated, allowing rapid assimilation and evaluation of evolutionary trends, geographical variation, and possible medical implications. This review brings together all compositional studies of snake venom proteomes published in the last decade. Compositional studies were identified for 132 snake species: 42 from 360 (12%) Elapidae (elapids), 20 from 101 (20%) Viperinae (true vipers), 65 from 239 (27%) Crotalinae (pit vipers), and five species of non-front-fanged snakes. Approximately 90% of their total venom composition consisted of eight protein families for elapids, 11 protein families for viperines and ten protein families for crotalines. There were four dominant protein families: phospholipase A2s (the most common across all front-fanged snakes), metalloproteases, serine proteases and three-finger toxins. There were six secondary protein families: cysteine-rich secretory proteins, l-amino acid oxidases, kunitz peptides, C-type lectins/snaclecs, disintegrins and natriuretic peptides. Elapid venoms contained mostly three-finger toxins and phospholipase A2s and viper venoms metalloproteases, phospholipase A2s and serine proteases. Although 63 protein families were identified, more than half were present in <5% of snake species studied and always in low abundance. The importance of these minor component proteins remains unknown.
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Ainsworth S, Petras D, Engmark M, Süssmuth RD, Whiteley G, Albulescu LO, Kazandjian TD, Wagstaff SC, Rowley P, Wüster W, Dorrestein PC, Arias AS, Gutiérrez JM, Harrison RA, Casewell NR, Calvete JJ. The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms. J Proteomics 2017; 172:173-189. [PMID: 28843532 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mambas (genus Dendroaspis) are among the most feared of the medically important elapid snakes found in sub-Saharan Africa, but many facets of their biology, including the diversity of venom composition, remain relatively understudied. Here, we present a reconstruction of mamba phylogeny, alongside genus-wide venom gland transcriptomic and high-resolution top-down venomic analyses. Whereas the green mambas, D. viridis, D. angusticeps, D. j. jamesoni and D. j. kaimosae, express 3FTx-predominant venoms, black mamba (D. polylepis) venom is dominated by dendrotoxins I and K. The divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas makes it plausible that this major difference in venom composition is due to dietary variation. The pattern of intrageneric venom variability across Dendroaspis represented a valuable opportunity to investigate, in a genus-wide context, the variant toxicity of the venom, and the degree of paraspecific cross-reactivity between antivenoms and mamba venoms. To this end, the immunological profiles of the five mamba venoms were assessed against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview of which available antivenoms may be more efficacious in neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the notably different potency and pharmacological profiles of Dendroaspis venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will allow selection and design of toxin immunogens with a view to generating a safer and more efficacious pan-specific antivenom against any mamba envenomation. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE The mambas (genus Dendroaspis) comprise five especially notorious medically important venomous snakes endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. Their highly potent venoms comprise a high diversity of pharmacologically active peptides, including extremely rapid-acting neurotoxins. Previous studies on mamba venoms have focused on the biochemical and pharmacological characterisation of their most relevant toxins to rationalize the common neurological and neuromuscular symptoms of envenomings caused by these species, but there has been little work on overall venom composition or comparisons between them. Only very recently an overview of the composition of the venom of two Dendroaspis species, D. angusticeps and D. polylepis, has been unveiled through venomics approaches. Here we present the first genus-wide transcriptomic-proteomic analysis of mamba venom composition. The transcriptomic analyses described in this paper have contributed 29 (D. polylepis), 23 (D. angusticeps), 40 (D. viridis), 25 (D. j. jamesoni) and 21 (D. j. kaimosae), novel full-length toxin sequences to the non-redundant Dendroaspis sequence database. The mamba genus-wide venomic analysis demonstrated that major D. polylepis venom components are Kunitz-fold family toxins. This feature is unique in relation to the relatively conserved three-finger toxin (3FTx)-dominated venom compositions of the green mambas. Venom variation was interpreted in the context of dietary variation due to the divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas. Additionally, the degree of cross-reactivity conservation of mamba venoms was assessed by antivenomics against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview to infer which available antivenoms may be capable of neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the pharmacological profiles of mamba venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will contribute to the generation of a safer and more efficacious pan-Dendroaspis therapeutic antivenom against any mamba envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Ainsworth
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Petras
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mikael Engmark
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Bio and Health Informatics, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Taline D Kazandjian
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Rowley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Ana Silvia Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain.
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Comparison of proteomic profiles of the venoms of two of the 'Big Four' snakes of India, the Indian cobra (Naja naja) and the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), and analyses of their toxins. Toxicon 2017; 135:33-42. [PMID: 28602829 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2017] [Revised: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are mixtures of biologically-active proteins and peptides, and several studies have described the characteristics of some of these toxins. However, complete proteomic profiling of the venoms of many snake species has not yet been done. The Indian cobra (Naja naja) and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) are elapid snake species that are among the 'Big Four' responsible for the majority of human snake envenomation cases in India. As understanding the composition and complexity of venoms is necessary for successful treatment of envenomation in humans, we utilized three different proteomic profiling approaches to characterize these venoms: i) one-dimensional SDS-PAGE coupled with in-gel tryptic digestion and electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-LC-MS/MS) of individual protein bands; ii) in-solution tryptic digestion of crude venoms coupled with ESI-LC-MS/MS; and iii) separation by gel-filtration chromatography coupled with tryptic digestion and ESI-LC-MS/MS of separated fractions. From the generated data, 81 and 46 different proteins were identified from N. naja and B. caeruleus venoms, respectively, belonging to fifteen different protein families. Venoms from both species were found to contain a variety of phospholipases A2 and three-finger toxins, whereas relatively higher numbers of snake venom metalloproteinases were found in N. naja compared to B. caeruleus venom. The analyses also identified less represented venom proteins including L-amino acid oxidases, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, 5'-nucleotidases and venom nerve growth factors. Further, Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors, cobra venom factors, phosphodiesterases, vespryns and aminopeptidases were identified in the N. naja venom, while acetylcholinesterases and hyaluronidases were found in the B. caeruleus venom. We further analyzed protein coverage (Lys/Arg rich and poor regions as well as potential glycosylation sites) using in-house software. These studies expand our understanding of the proteomes of the venoms of these two medically-important species.
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